
', p^ 



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Class T^\^:l^5 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSnV 



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V. 




KNOWLES JACQUARD SILK LOOM 

Crompton & Knowles Loom Works 



Textile Design 



A Working Manual of 

APPROVED PRACTICE IN ALL DETAILS OF THE ART OF DESIGNING THE 

VARIOUS KINDS OF TEXTILE FABRICS, TOGETHER WITH PRACTICAL 

APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TEXTILE COLORING 

AND SYSTEMATIC METHODS OF COST FINDING 



By FENWICK UMPLEBY 

Head of Department of Textile Design 
Lowell Textile School, Lowell, Mass. 



ILLUSTRATED 



CHICAGO 

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 

1909 



<o 






,V 



\5 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDies Received 

MAK 22 ia09 

■CLASS 0L. XXCi No, 



COPY 



Copyright 1908 by 
American Schooi, op Correspondences 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
All Rights Reserved 



^ 



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eK 



Fore^vo^d 




HE Textile Industry has shared to such an extent the 
modern tendency toward specialization, and has been 
marked by the development of such a multiplicity of 
types of machinery and special mechanical and chem- 
ical processes, that the various branches of this great 
industry to-day constitute in reality distinct though closely re- 
lated arts. The present volume is intended to supply a prac- 
tical working guide to the art of designing the various kinds of 
textile fabrics. The work covers all details from the use of 
design paper and other mechanical aids, the principles of 
drafting and reduction, and the designing of the simplest 
fabrics, to the most complicated applications of the principles 
of textile coloring and the production of the most elaborate 
designs of special fabrics. A section is devoted to the impor- 
tant topic of systematic methods of cost finding. 

C Special stress is laid on the practical as distinguished from 
the merely theoretical or descriptive form of treatment, the 
book being based on a careful study of conditions and needs as 
developed in the best American mills. 

C This volume will be found especially adapted for purposes 
of self -instruction and home study, fitted not only to meet the 
needs of the beginner in Textile Design, but also to serve as a 



reference work replete with information and suggestions of 
great practical value to the most advanced and experienced 
designer. 

C The method adopted in the preparation of this volume is 
that which the American School of Correspondence has devel- 
oped and employed so successfully for many years. It is not an 
experiment, but has stood the severest of all tests — that of 
practical use — which has demonstrated it to be the best method 
yet devised for the education of the busy workingman. 

€L For purposes of ready reference, and timely information 
when needed, it is believed that this volume will be found to 
meet every requirement. 




Table of Contents 



Principles and Methods of Design Page *11 

Primary Elements in Design — Use of Design Paper — Warp and Weft or Woof 
- — Plain Cloth — Twills (Plain and Fancy, Steep and Reclining) — Diagonals — 
Intersections, Interlacing, and Cut Sections — Exercises in Plan Making — Ex- 
ercises in Spot Weaves — Color Effects — Hair Line — Design from a Written 
Formula — Harness, Ileddles, and Eyes or Mails — Warping and Dressing — • 
Actuating the Harnesses — Drafting and Reduction — Twilling — Flushes — 
Straight Over-Draw — Fancy Twills — Reverse Twills — Diaper Work and Point 
Draws — Damask — Double, Triple, and Alternate Drafts — Exercises in Drafts 
and Chain Plans — Sateen Weaves — Satin — Satinet — Kentucky Jean — Sateen 
Stripes — Cotton Sateen Stripe — Overchecks — Plain and Irregular Rib Weaves 
—Warp Effect — Filling Effect — Figured and Oblique Rib Weaves — Basket 
Weaves — Corkscrew and Double-Twill Weaves 



Design of Special Fabrics . . Page 121 

Single Cloth — Backed Cloth — Double Cloth — Methods of Backing Cloth (with 
Filling, with Warp) — Binding of Double Cloths — Laying Out a Double-Cloth 
Design — Three-Ply or Triple Cloth — "Double Plain" Cloth — Stripe and Check 
Patterns — Spot Weaves — Pile or Plush — Warp Pile — Filling Pile — Cut and 
Loop Pile — Corduroy^Velvet — Terry Cloth — Turkish Towel Cloth — Brussels 
Carpet — Wilton Carpet — Chinchilla — Pique — Figured Pique — Jacquard Design- 
ing — Principles of the Jacquard Machine — Card Cutting — Casting Out — Dis- 
tribution of Pattern — Areas — Arrangement of Figure — Figures Formed with 
Both Warp and Filling — Figures not Square — Diagonals 



Cross- Weaving Page 237 

Plain Gauze Fabrics — Ground Threads — Crossing Threads — Standard and 
Doup — Full Gauze Fabrics — Leno Designs (Simple and Fancy) — Diamond 
Patterns — Warp and Filling Figures with Gauze — Openness in Gauze and 
Closeness of Texture in Plain and Figure — Open-Work Leno Designs — One- 
Thread-Crossing-One and One-Thread-Crossing-More-'than-One Systems — Swans- 
down Weave — Leno Stripes 



Principles of Textile Coloring; Cost-Finding . . . Page 281 

Elements of Woven Patterns (Weave and Color) — -Theories of Color (Pig- 
ment Theory, Light Theory) — The Spectrum — Classification of Colors (Sim- 
ple, Compound) — Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors — Relation of Color 
to Textiles — Effects of Fibers on Colors — Tones — Tints — Shades — Hues — 
Broken Colors — Value — Potentiality of a Color — Scaling — Luminous Colors — 
Neutral Colors — Complementary Colors — Color Combinations — Cost-Finding— . 
Systematic Account-Keeping — Cash Book — Kinds of Accounts — Manufacturing 
Costs — Manufacturing Labor — Reports of Spinning Room, Weaving Room, etc. 
- — Costs of Maintenance, Power, Administration, etc. — Semi-Annual Cost 
Sheets — Assembling Sheets 



Index . . . , Page 337 



*For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 

PART I. 



There are three primary elements in textile design. 

First, the weave. 

Second, amalgamation and combination of weaves. 

Third, the mixing and blending of colors as applied to textile 
fabrics. 

The object to which a design is to be applied is of the utmost 
importance 5 the designer must first know the intended uses of the 
fabric. When a draftsman makes the drawings of a machine, or 
an engineer of a bridge, he first studies the convenience of arrange- 
ment, the conditions as to strength, durability and utility. It is 
necessary to consider all these particulars in the construction of a 
piece of cloth. Therefore a textile design, or the design of a 
woven fabric and its specifications, is, when complete, a perfect 
working plan, — descriptive and illustrative of the arrangement 
and character of all the component parts and processes. It 
describes the different materials, as to quality, kind, character, 
size, or counts and color of the yarn ; it gives the arrangement of 
the threads, also quantities and proportions. The design illus- 
trates tlie construction of the fabric, and the lay-out describes 
special processes and operations. To be complete and perfect, it 
should be so comprehensive that any qualified manager could pro- 
duce the desired fabric without further instructions. 

USE OF DESIGN PAPER. 

These papers are ruled with a heavy line to represent squares, 
and the sides are again divided by fainter lines into eight, ten, 
twelve or more divisions as required. 

Fig. 1 represents a portion of design paper ruled 12 X 12. 
The use of ruled paper is exceedingly simple if the first principles 
and rudiments are comprehended. To have a clear and proper 



11 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



Fig. 1. 



conception of the use of design paper, it will be necessary for the 
student to divide the. squares into two distinct systems. Firsts 
suppose that there is a series of vertical lines and no horizontal 
lines (see Fig. 2.) Second, that there is a series 'of horizontal 
lines and no vertical lines (see Fig. 3.) 

It is universally under- 
stood that woven fabrics in 
general have two systems of 
threads : first, the warp threads ; 
second, the weft or woof. The 
weft is commonly called the 
filling threads. These are the 
two most important things to 
form the plainest of woven 
cloth. 

Warp is the set of threads 
that run lengthwise in woven 
goods, that is, if you had a piece of cloth four yards long there 
would be four yards of warp. Warp is represented on the design 
paper by the' vertical or perpendicular series of small squares. 
The weft or filling is the set of threads that interlace the 
warp at right angles, and is represented on the design 
paper by the transverse or horizontal series of small 
squares. The weft runs across the width of the cloth. It 
should be clearly understood that these two systems, warp 
or vertical squares, and filling or transverse squares, form 
the fabric or design. 

One object of point paper designing is to leproduce 
an imitation of the cloth and show the method of inter- 
lacing in the fabric, another object of the ruled paper is 
to show a plan of the fabric exactly as it would appear if looking 
down upon it. 

The error that is usually made by beginners is that each 
small square is considered by itself, without taking into consider- 
ation that each line of squares, either vertical or horizontal, forms 
the design. This will be more readily understood by an el:amina- 
tion of Fig. 4. Marks of any description — crosses, dots or circles 
— represent the raised warp threads, unless otherwise specified. 



Fisj. 2. 



12 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



In the plain or cotton weave, there are only two movements, one 
thread up and one thread down ; this operation is repeated until 
the warp is woven out. Fig. 5 is a sketch or diagram of an en- 
larged section of a fabric woven on this principle ; it is a simple 



Fig. 3. 



H 


• 




• 




• 




• 




G 




9 




• 




• 




« 


^ 


• 




• 




• 




• 




t 




• 




• 




e 




9 


D 


• 




• 




« 




• 




C 




• 




• 




• 




» 


b 


• 




• 




9 




o 




A 




• 




O 




• 




• 



12 3 4 5 6 7a 
Fiff. 4. 



interweaving of one thread of filling over and under the warp 
threads alternately, first thread down and second thread up, etc. 
The 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th threads are down, the 2nd, 4th, 6th jand 
8th threads are up, a thread or pick of filling A, is now lying 
between 1 and 2 warp threads ; the next movement is to lift 1, 3, 
5, 7, and sink 2, 4, 6, 8 and put in another thread or pick of 
filling B ; the third pick is like the first and the fourth pick is 
like the second. These two movements are repeated over and 
over again until the web or warp is woven out. This constitutes 
a plain or cotton weave, and, the ap- 
pearance of the enlarged diagram WB 
(Fig. 5) is somewhat like the inter- 'g^% 
lacing of the strips of willow in the Tm 
making of baskets and mats. — 

To thoroughly comprehend the 
use of design paper, the main fact to 
be borne in mind is the continuity 
of every individual thread, either in 
the warp or filling. In making a 
twill design, the leading consideration 
is that it shall be so arranged that 
whatever the pattern it shall be continuous and unbroken, on the 
same principles that when we cover walls with paper or floors 
with carpet, the design must join perfectly and be continuous, or 
the broken, irregular design will offend the eye. How this affects 
the design will be best understood by a careful study of Fig. 6 ; 




Fiff. 5. 



18 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 




Fig. 6. 



3 and 4 are a repetition and continuation of 1 and 2, 5 and 6 a 
continuation of 3 and 4, and 7 and 8 of 5 and 6, and so on. 

Fig. 7 illustrates the principles and construction of the 
vertical and transverse lines of the design paper. The vertical 
stripes in Figs. 4, 5 and 7 correspond with the warp threads 1 to 
8 in each design ; also the transverse or filling 
threads A to H correspond in Figs. 4, 5 and 7. 
If point paper were ruled after the manner 
of Fig. 7, it would be difficult to see a pattern 
at a glance, as the many lines would be con- 
fusing. To overcome this, the paper is ruled 
without the spaces between the threads as shown 
in Fig. 7, but the spaces are represented with 
the faint lines as in Fig. 1. Fig. 8 shows the section of the first 
pick A of Fig. 6. We must understand that the lines do not 
represent threads but indicate the divisions between the threads, 
,and it is this that enables an accurate plan of cloth to be made. 
When this stripe arrangement is fully understood, the first diffi- 
culty of textile design has been overcome. 
Points to be remembered. 

First, That light lines represent places of intersection. 
Second, A mark, cross or dot on one of the small squares 
indicates that the thread is raised — the filling is under and the 
warp on the surface. 

Thi7-d, An empty space or unmarked square shows that the 
filling is on the surface, thereby covering the warp. 

Fourth, That the heavy dark line surrounding a series of 
small squares is for convenience in counting. 

Fifth, That the design must be continuous and unbroken. 

PLAIN CLOTH. 

A plain cloth makes a very strong and firm fabric, but 
yieither very close nor heavy, because the threads are not as close 
or compact as they are in other weaves. In a plain fabric, if the 
cloth is not shrunk or fulled in the finishing processes, the fabric 
is perforated more or less, according to the size and twist of 
yarns used. These perforations vary greatly under different 
conditions; if very heavy, coarse threads are used, the perfora- 



14 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



tions will be large ; if finer threads, the perforations will be 
smaller. There are also other conditions which may change the 
texture of the plain weave ; if the threads are twisted hard, the 
cloth will be wirey and open. In making any fabric the twist of 
the yarn must be considered. For example, when two pieces of 
heavy rope or coid of the same twist are woven, they will inter- 
lay or become embedded with each other, but if ropes of contrary 



H 















. 


■ 
















G 
































F 
































e: 
































D 
































C 
































B 
































A 
















1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




Fig. 7. 

twist are used, they do not lay close or compact and the perfora- 
tions are large, because the ridges of the twist cannot become 
compact. 

TWILLS AND DIAGONALS. 

After the plain weave . is thoroughly understood, the next 
step is the study of twill weaves. These are weaves in which 
the intersections of the warp and filling threads are such that 
they produce lines diagonally across the fabric, either 
from right to left or from left to right, at an angle 
of 45 degrees. The simplest t^vill weave that can 
be constructed is one for three harnesses, variously 
known as the 3-harness twill, prunella twill, and 
3-harness doeskin. . These names vary according 
to the nature of the material or the relation of warp 
and filling employed in the construction of the particvilar kind of 
fabric. 

Fig. 9 is an illustration of this simple twill weave. It 



» 



Fig. 9. 



shows the three different positions of the threads to form the 
twill and, as in plain cloth, whenever the warp is raised, an indi- 
cation is made in the corresponding small square on the design 



19 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



paper, thus denoting which thread has to be lifted when the 
filling pick or thread is inserted. 

Fig. 10 shows an enlarged diagram of a fabric woven upon 
this principle. It will be noticed that the warp thread 1 is raised 
as indicated by the mark in the small square at the left-hand 

lower corner in Fig. 9. The first 
pick A passing under it and over 
2 and 3. For the second pick, 
the mark is on the second thread, 
consequently the filling thread B 
passes over 1, under 2 and over 3. 
For the third pick, the mark is on. 
the third thread, therefore the 
third filling thread passes over 1 
and 2, and under No. 3. 

In this- design (Fig. 11) the 
twill is complete within a given 
space, and if we extend the design, 
it will be a continuous and un- 
broken repetition of the first three threads, 1, 2, 3, also the 
first three picks as shown in design Fig. 11. Let us go one step 
farther and examine Figs. 12 and 13; the conditions are quite 
opposite ; this is a simple reversal of the twill, that is, the warp 




Fig. 10. 





Fig. 1 



Fig. 11. 



is lifted two threads, on each pick of the complete design, viz.: 
the first two threads are raised as indicated by black squares, 
while the third tln-ead is left down or depressed, — exactly the 
reverse of Figs. 9, 10 and 11. 



16 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



9 



In these examples, every three threads and picks are an exact 
repetition of the first three, and any number of threads may be 
taken from one side aad placed on the other side, or they may be 
taken from the bottom and vice-versa. The twill will be contin- 
uous and unbroken. In the absence of design paper there are 
other methods of indicating a weave. Take the plain weave 
as the 

1 

^' 

up and 1 down. 

Second Example. The three-harness twill, filling flush, or 
1 



First Example. It can be stated thus 



or written 1 



{i..iS I " ^ 



^E i ^^ ^ ^^ ^ ^- 

>iii«i'''"a ■lutiiwa ■miiiiiiv ■iiii,aiiiiiB 

rm. m 'mm. m mm. m ^^ i 
rm ^g>'"« ^n""'| gj.>n"<'f Mb 



-, or 1 up and 2 down. 

Tliird Example. The three-harness twill, warp flush, or 

2 

, or 2 up and 1 down. 

The word up, or figure above the line, indicates the number 
of tlireads to be raised on 
each pick, while the word 
down, or figure below the 
line, signifies that such 
threads must be depressed 
for the filling to pass over. 

The 45-degree twills 
are divided into two 
classes, those which are 
even-sided and those which 
are uneven-sided. The 
even-sided twills are those 
in which the warps and 
fillings are evenly bal- 
anced. By an examination of Figs. 14 and 15, it will be noticed 
that the number of threads raised is equal to the number 
of threads depressed. Also notice that it is a four-harness twill, 
and that each succeeding four threads and picks are a repetition 
of the first four. The line of twill is continuous ahd unbroken. 

2 



"■ ■iii.fl'i'V 

m mum, m 

mim m mm. m mm m 
I m wm. m mm ^ m 



Fig. 13. 



The written formula is 2 up and 2 down, or 



Thi.' 



IS weave is 



17 



10 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



called the four-harness common twill, cassimere twill and shalloon 
twill. 

The uneven-sided twills are of two kinds, — those that are 
on an even number of harnesses and those that are on an uneven 
number of harnesses. 

Fig. 16 represents an uneven-sided twill on an even, number 
of harnesses. This weave is called the 4-harness swansdown ; it 

has three-fourths of the filling on the surface. Formula . 




Fig. 14. 




3 
The reverse of this weave would be the , and would, indicate 

the warp surface weave, commonly called the crow weave. 

Fig. IT represents an uneven-sided twill on an uneven 
number of harnesses. On this weave, it will be noticed that there 
are only two threads raised, while there are three threads 

2 
depressed; formula - 



3 



This weave can be reversed so that 
3 



the conditions would be opposite ; formula 

Attention is again called to the angle of the twill. It is 
continuous and unbroken and at an angle of 45 degrees. In 
designing twills always begin at the lower left-hand corner of the 
design and make out angle of twill for full number of threads, 
both warp and filling. Thus, a full weave for an eight-harness 
twill would require eight threads and eight picks, requiring 
eight small squares each way of the design paper. The student 



18 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



11 



should run out each design to fully twice the original number of 
threads and picks. Study each side, top and bottom, also study 
the termination when a design is complete. The number of 



— 












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D 










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C 








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'//, 
















R 






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Y/, 








V/, 










A 












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D 










^/a 






















e 








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"//, 























V/, 








^ 








y^, 










A 
































b 










1 






















c 








1 






V/, 
















R 




1 


1 








^ 








''/a 










A 


















■'A 
















































1 


2 


3 


4 


1 


2 


5 


4 


1 


2 


3 


4 




-J 





































■ 


T 








— 




L 


i 


^^ 






j^ 






D 


^1^ 






^ 


^ 






C 


^W^ 






^^ 






B 


^ii 














A 


P 














L 


1 




/,^ 












D 








J^^ 






C 






^^ 






a 






V/M 










A 




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12 34 


5 1 


2 


3 


4 


5 























Fiff. 17. 



Fig. 16. 



threads and picks to complete the design should be seen at a 
glance and to bo sure that in repetition it will be continuous and 
unbroken. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

Copy Figs. 11, 12, 14, 16 and 17 and extend them over at 
least double the number of threads in each direction, taking care 
to work upon squares which represent the number of threads 
occupied by the original design, filling each in succession, and 
paying no attention to the thick lines upon the paper. At first, 
do not be in a hurry to carry the design iu a straight line over the 
whole space, but work strictly in the squares as shown in the 
above examples. 

1. Make all the 45° twills possible upon four threads, and 
repeat them after the manner shown ia Figs. 11 and 12, to be 
certain that the pattern will be complete and continuous for an 
indefinite length. 

2. Make all the 45° twills possible upon 5, 6 and 7 threads 
respectively, after the manner suggested in No. 1. 

Note. In working out these Exercises the chief objects are 
jirst^ to determine when a pattern is complete, and, to be 
certain that this is the case, the student might cut a portion from 
one side and place it on the opposite side, to see if the design 



19 



12 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



really fits togetlier. A little practice in comparing one side 
with the other will soon enable him to discern this without cutting. 
The second object is to ascertain the number of threads in the 
design when complete, to prepare for the lessons in drafting, and 
drawing the warp threads through the heddles, in order to weave 



■■ 



■I 



Fig. 18. 



Fig. 19. 



with the fewest number possible. The comparison of designs is 
of great importance, as a knowledge of their relations will be re- 
quired in subsequent work. 

FANCY 45 DEGREE TWILLS, 

The student must not confine himself to what are commonly 
known as simple twills, but should find out how many designs 



■I 



■i 



Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



and what variety he can produce upon a given number of threads. 
The best plan in going about this work — and this holds good in 
every branch of the work — is to proceed in the most systematic 
manner. 

For instance, take five threads as a base and work out as 



20 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



13 



many regular twills as possible. These are given in Figs. 18, 19, 
20, 21, 22 and 23, which show the full limit in producing what 
are commonly known as "regular twills" on five harnesses. 

This expression " regular twills " must be understood, as it 
is in the trade, to apply to twills running at an angle of 45 degree, 
and with no fancy figul'e accompanying it. 

It should be noticed that all 45-degree twills, move or ad- 
vance 1 thread to the right until the full repeat of the weave has 



■■ 



■ 



Fig. 22. 



Fig. 23. 



been obtained and can be worked out from a written formula, thus, 



Fig. 18, 



99 



2 1 



Fig. 19, 



; Fig. 23, 



2 



; Fig. 20, 



; Fig. 21, 



; Fig. 



1 1' ° ' 1 2 
pick of each design which is a 
45-degree twill, but when the twill 
is irregular there must be another 
method of indicating the weave. 

For instance. Fig. 18 is on 5 
harnesses and could be indicated 

^ or 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 or 1, the 



2' "^ ' 1 
These examples refer to the first 



4 



move number, or 



f/i- 



,1 




Fig. 24. 



Fig. 25. 



The weave on 4 harnesses as shown at Fig. 24 is known as 
the 70-degree steep twill, the written formula is 1 -|- -f- 0- 

The terms 1 -j- -|- 0, etc., refer to the position of the points 
in a base with reference to one another, counted horizontally in 



31 



14 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



the example given. Thus, in Fig. 24 the mark on the first pick 
is placed in the first point or small square, that on the second pick 
moved in position 0, i. e., in the same position ; that on the third 
pick moved 0, that on the fourth moved 1 and so on throughout. 

Fig. 25. weave commencing on 1st pick. 
2nd pick moves 1 forward. 
3rd pick moves 1 in opp. direction. 
4th pick moves 1 forward. 
5th pick moves 1 forward. 

Gtli pick moves 1 in opposite direction, and so on 
Similarly 3" -[- 3 — 5 may be 



1+1 

1+1-1 

1 

1 + 1. 

1 + 1-1 

until the weave begins to repeat. 

commenced at any point as shown at Fig. 26 ; weave on 9 harnesses 

-f- 3 1st thread and 1st pick. 

— 5 moves 5 in opposite direction. 

-|- 3 moves 3 forward. 

Take Fig. 26 as an example. The weave is on 9 threads, 
therefore the counting or moving must be worked from 1 to 9. 

Commencing at the first thread a point 

is placed on the 1st square, the 2nd pick 

■ IT I ~ 1 1 Z is marked — 5 or 5 in the opposite direc- 

"•" y "^"""^ tion, or, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, hence the next 

' I I I ■ II~ point is on thread 5. Tlie 3rd pick is 

— — marked -\- 3 or 3 forward, or 6, 7, 8, the 

third point on the 8th third ; the fourth 

--_ pick is marked -]- 3 or 3 forward, then 

9, 1, 2, fourth point on 2nd thread, 5th 

ZZZ pick is marked — 5 or 5 in opposite 
_ I I direction, then, 1, 9, 8, 7,6, fifth point 

on 6 thread and so on throughout until 
the weave repeats. 

The next step in the work is to 
produce as many designs as possible 
upon any given number of threads, and 
in doing so proceed systematically, as 
in the five-harness examples, first with 1 
point, then with 2, and so on, until a 
complete series of simple lines as in Figs. 18 to 23 has been run 




Fig. 26. 



2ii 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



15 



through, and, accordmg to the number of threads, open out the 
space between the lines of twill. Make light and heavy lines and 
vary them until there is no further room for variation, observing 
the repetitions of the pattern in the reverse order, both in the 




Fig. 27. 

quantity of material which comes to the surface, and in the 
position of the twill. 

Diagrams for illustrating the construction of reclining and 
steep twills are shown in Fig. 27. 



88 



16 



TEXTILE DESIGI^. 



Steep and Reclining Twills. 

The 15° reclining twill is formed by moving 4 points,' Fig. 28 

29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 



u 20° 








3 


" 27° " . 








2 


" 38° 








1+2 " 


" 45° Regular 








1 


" 52° Steep 








1+1+0 - 


u 63° 








.1+0 


u 70° 








1+0+0 " 


u 75° u 








1+0+0+0" 




Fig. 28. 



■i 



Fig. 29. 




Fig. 30. 



■ 



Fig. 31. 




Fig. 32. 




Fig. 33. 




Fig. 34. 





Fig. 35. 



Fig. 36. 



J24 



• TEXTILE DESIGN. 17 

Any of the intermediate degree twills can be formed aocerd- 
ing" to the requirements of design. 

INTERSECTIONS, INTERLACING, AND CUT SECTIONS. 

What is the meaning of intersecting, interlacing, and inter- 
weaving? Take the plain weave for an example, If we 

have a number of threads and lift the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc., and 
depress or sink the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, etc., and between these 
sets of threads we introduce a pick of filling, we should be inter- 
lacing or interweaving the warp threads. What would be the 
result? Fig. 37 illustrates the section of 8 warp threads in a 



Fig. 37. Cut Section. 

plain cloth, interwoven with one pick' of filling, A. We have 1st 
thread up, then an intersection of filling, 2nd thread down, then 
an intersection of filling. In Fig. 37 there are 8 warp threads 
and 8 intersections of filling. = 16 units. 

The answer to the above question is : Interlacing and inter- 
weaving is inserting the filling between two or more systems of 
warp threads, while the intersection is the space occupied by the 
warp or filling between any number of threads, warp or filling. 




2 3 

Fig. 38. Cut Section. 

On the design paper the spaces represent the warp and filling, 
while the lines represent the intersections. 

Take the next example, the three-harness twill : one 

thread up an,d one intersection, two threads down and one inter- 
section, threads 2 and 3 lying close together and no intersection. 
Fig. 38 shows 3 threads and 2 intersections =: 5 units. 

. . ' 2 
We will now examine the cassimere or shalloon twill 

2 

(See Fig. 15.) We notice that the filling thread interweaves 



25 



18 TEXTILE DESIGN. 



alternately over and under two warp threads as shown in Fig. 39, 
ana in the same order the warp threads interlace over and under 
two filling threads, (Fig. 40); but by studying Fig. 15, we find 
that each succeeding filling thread does not pass over the same 
two warp threads, nor does each consecutive warp thread interlace 
over or under the same two filling threads, nor are they alternate 
as in plain cloth, but they change in regular consecutive 



Fig. 39. Cut Section. 

order, That is, if the 1st pick, A, interweaves over the threads 
Nos. 1 and 2, and under Nos. 3 and 4 ; the 2nd pick, B, will pass 
under Nos. 1 over 2 and 3 and under 4 ; the 3rd pick, C, will pass 
under 1 and 2, and over 3 and 4; the 4th pick, D, will pass over 
1 under 2 and 3, and over 4. The 5th pick, E, is a repetition of 
No. 1, and so on. The design is continuous and unbroken, each 
thread and pick advancing one before it rises to the sur- 
face or passes to the back of the fabric. It is this order 
of interlacing that gives the effect of producing in the 
cloth distinct twills or diagonal lines at an angle of 45 
degrees. This mode of interweaving is called the even, 
or balanced system. There are, as in the plain weave, 
as many of each system of threads on the face of the cloth 
as there are on the back. The longer the floats or inter- 
vals that we interweave and interlace the warp and filling, 
the greater the amount of material- that can be introduced 
-p-^ '^g the greater the gain in weight and substance. 

We will now examine the three weaves under con- 
sideration. Plain weave one up and one intersection, one down 
and one intersection or two threads and two intersections. 

We have already learned in studying the plain weave that 
when constructed on the truest principles, warp and filling of the 
same size or counts, number of threads and picks being equal, it 
will make a cloth more or less perforated according to the material 
used. The fabric would be built to withstand wear and tear and 
friction, but we could not obtain bulk and compactness. 



96 




5 o 

►J IH 

IS 

W 
U 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



19 



„ Fi^. 41, 



Now let us examine the three-harness twill, ; 

z 

We have two intersections in every three threads, as one up and 
one intersection, two down and one intersection, therefore, allow- 



Fig. 41. Cut Section. 

ing threads 2 and 3 to lie close together without any perforations. 

2 
In the four-harness cassimere or shalloon twill, , Fig. 42, 

we find that there are only two intersections on every four 
threads ; two threads up and one intersection, and two threads 



Fig; 42. Cut Section. 

down and one intersection, thus giving still more opportunity to 
gain weight and compactness of texture, as an examination of 
Fig. 42 will show. On the first pick the first and second threads 
are lying close together, then an intersection ; third and fourth 
threads lying together, then an intersection, and so on, consecu- 
tively and continuously. 



Fig. 43. Cut Section. 

The three weaves on twelve threads, their intersections an\ 
units stand as follows : 

Plain weave Fig. 43, 12 threads and 12 intersections = 24 
units. Three-harness twill Fig. 41, 12 threads and 8 intersec- 



^ 



"ZZZ 



^ 



Fig. 44. Cut Section. 

tions = 20 units. Four-harness twill Fig. 42, 12 threads and 6 
intersections = 18 units. 



87 



20 TEXTILE DESIGN. 



Take another example, Fig. 44 : The four-harness filling-flush 
twill, commonly called the swansdown weave ; one up and three 
down, or the warp-flush twill Fig. 45 ; one down and three up, 
commonly known as the ciow weave. 

In these two weaves there are only two intersections on four 



Fig. 45. Cut Section. 

threads, and there are three warp threads lying close together, 
either on the face or back of the cloth. These weaves give us 
more liberty to use heavier material or a greater number of 
threads in the warp or filling, according to the weave used. 

These intersections, units and warp' or filling flushes are 
items that must be considered when designing textile fabrics. 

The following will show how an examination question or 
exercise should be answered. 

Question. Write in your own words an explanation of the 
use of design paper. What do you mean by the dots placed upon 
it and how does it convey your ideas to others? 

Answer. Design paper is used -to represent woven cloth as 
follows: The series of squares running vertically represent the 
warp threads in the loom and the series of squares running hori- 
zontally represent the filling, weft, woof or pick threads inserted 
by the shuttle. If the warp threads are to show on the face of 
the cloth, the filling or weft threads must go under them. A dot 
or cross placed in a square indicates that the warp thread is on 
the surface and vice versa a blank square means that the filling 
or weft is on the surface and the warp under the filling. 

Suppose the warp threads are black and those to be put in 
by the shuttle are white. A black and white design, or fabric to 
be woven, is shown on the design paper by indicating by a cross 
or dot placed in the square what warp threads are to show on the 
surface. Imagine that each small square on the design paper is 
reduced so small that it can contain only a needle point. It is 
then readily seen that a design is traced by a succession of minute 
dots. The design paper thus used will give a very good imitation 
of a woven fabric. 



28 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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30 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 23 



. EXERCISES IN PLAN MAKING. 

Work out weaves from the following : 



(3) 1_^^_ /l • (4) 1 ^ ' /6 



(7-12) ?_J-_l_/l,2,3,4,5,6. 



9 9 9 / 

(13-17) - ^ ^ g / 1.2. 8, 4, 5. 



(18) %%S A (19-21) ^i-2^/l, 2.3. 



'^2 2 ) 
(22-25) - ^^ ^" J 1, 2, 3, 4. 



(26-29) - ^ ^ ^^ /l, 2, 3, 4. 3— 2^ 2, 4-3+2, 4-2+L 



(30-33) ^ ^^ ^" ^ / and ^ ^^ ^^ ^ /2+0, B_l, 4-2, 5-3. 



24 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



MAKE ONE COMPLETE REPEAT OF EACH OP THE FOLLOWING DESIGNS. 





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32 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



25 



MAKE ONE COMPLETE PATTERN WITHOUT REPEAT OF EACH OF THE FOLLOWING. 



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30 EXERCISES IN SPOT WEAVES. 



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15 



12 



88 



TEXTILE DESIGK. 



3i 



COLOR EFFECTS. 

Influence of Color on Weaves, or the Application of Color 

to Fabrics. 

The great variety of patterns produced in all lines of fabrics, 
are many of them made on the same weave, the change in the 
pattern being obtained in the arrangement of the colors in the 
warp and filling. To understand how this change is made, it is 
only necessary to bear iii mind that where warp is raised that 
color will appear, and where filling is on the surface that color 
will appear. These changes are called color 
effects, and the simplest form which can be de- 
^ ^ I I I I signed is the common hair-line, which shows in 

POC — the pattern one thread of a light color and one 

B .B J -LLJJ thread of a dark color, running lengthwise of the 
^^' ' fabric. It is made on the plain weave. By care- 

ful study the method will be learned quickly, so that any number 
of effects can be produced. 

These color effects are made to get an idea of the appearance 
after weaving of any arrangement of colors on a certain weave, 
in making these color patterns, decide what weave is to be used. 
To commence, we will use the plain weave. Fig. 46. Next indi- 
cate the weave on the design paper by a small dot or faint 
mark. Fig. 47, which will serve as a guide which thread must 



II 


11 


• • 


• • mi 


• • 
• • 


• • w 


• • 


• • u 


• • 
• • 






Fiff. 47. 



Fig. 48. 



be raised. Then indicate at the top, and right-hand side of the 
design, the arrangement of colors (see Fig. 47) which we will 
assume to be one thread red and one thread green in the warp, 
and one thread green and one thread red in the filling. After 
having indicated the weave and the arrangement of colors, the 
next operation is to mark where the warp is raised as indicated 



80 



32 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



by a small dot, the mark or square to be filled with such color as 
indicated by the color on the top of design as shown in Fig. 48. 
When this has been done, mark every filling pick as indicated by 
the squares being left blank, which indicates the warp down, with 
such color as represented on right-hand side of design, Fig. 49. 

This pattern in color is called " The Hair-line." The 
simplest change from this hair-line pattern is to produce the line 
effect across or in the width of the fabric ; this effect is made on 



■ 




Fig. 49. 



Fio-. 50. 



the same weave and arrangement of color in the warp, the only 
change being in the filling, which is one of red and one of green 
(see Fig. 50). The chief characteristic of such hair-lines and 
stripes, is that each color must cover its own or like color, that is, 
if red warp is down a red filling must cover it. 

These color effects ai-e the most important in designs for 
dress goods and in cotton, woolen and silk fabrics. Constant 
practice in making them will be of great assistance to the student, 
as an excellent experience will be obtained in regard to the vari- 
ous effects,- and by the use of several colors the effect as in the 
cloth will be obtained. 

Explanation of Fig. Jf/. The design is 8 threads by 8 picks, 
all plain or cotton weave. The small dots indicate which warp 
threads must be on the surface, the marks on the top indicate the 
color of such threads in the warp which must appear on the sur- 
face of the fabric. In this instance we will suppose the warp is 
dressed 1 thread black and 1 thread white all the way across. 
The marks on the right-hand side of Fig. 47 indicate the color of 
the weft or filling which must appear on the surface of the 
fabric. 

Explanation of Fig. J}-8. Fig. 48 is like Fig. 47, with the warp 
threads lifted, squares filled out, showing the colors wliich are on 



40 




TEXTILE DESIGN. 33 

the surface. In Mg. 47, the first thread and first pick is repie- 
sented by El which indicates such thread to be lifted, and in 
Fig. 48 the corresponding square is filled up black, which is the 
color on the surface of the fabric, the 2nd thread and 1st pick is 
represented by D , which indicates such thread to be down, and 
would be covered by the filling and the surface of the cloth, would 
be the color of the filling. The second pick: 
the 1st thread is represented as down □ , 
this would be covered by the filling ; the second 
thread on second pick is represented by □ , 
which indicates the thread to be on the suiface. 
^^' * The color mark over the second thread in Figs. 

47 and 48 is white, therefore, white will be on the surface of the 
cloth. 

Explanation of Fig. ^9. This is like Figs. 47 and 48, but 
interwoven with the filling as shown at the rightdiand side. 
Detail : 1st pick white : under black and over white alternately. 
2nd pick black: over black and under white alternately. 
3rd pick like the 1st, 4th pick like the 2nd, and so on, 
thus forming the " Hair-line " pattern, one dark line and one light 
line down the cloth. In the hair-line design black covers black 
and white covers white. 

Explanation of Fig. 50. The particulars for tlie warp colors 
and weave are identical with Figs. 47, 48 and 49, but the inter- 
weaving of the* filling is important. 

The first pick is black in place of white. The second pick 
is white in place of black, or black covers white and white covers 
black, thus making the dark line across the fabric as shown in 
Fig. 50. 

Explanation of Fig. 51. This shows the effect of the plain 
weave, warp solid black, filling solid white. 

Fig. 52 is an example of the plain weave on 8 threads and 
8 picks, arranged in the following manner: 

' 4 threads and 4 picks, plain weave 



1st section J 1 

4 threads i 4 » .^ i u » u \ 

L 8 1 ' 



41 



34 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



! 4 threads and 4 picks, plain weave 

2nd section! 1 

4 threads ■ 4 ^^ " ^ " « " 1 

Explanation: 1st section consists of 4 threads, 8 jDicks high 
divided into two parts, 4 threads and 4 picks regular plain 

weave 

1st pick — 4 threads, 1st up, 2nd down, 3rd up, 4th down. 
2nd " — 4 " 1st down, 2nd up, 3rd down, 4th up. 
3rd " — 4 " 1st up, 2nd down, 3rd up, 4th down. 
4th " — 4 " 1st down, 2nd up, 3rd down, 4th up. 

This is the first part of 1st section. See the first 4 threads and 
picks 1 to 4 and picks A to D, Fig. 52. " 



























































































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12 3456 78 

Fig. 52. 




Fig. 53. 



Second part of 1st section reads, 4 threads and 4 picks, plain 
weave, commencing with the second thread of the plain weave, 
which will read on the design paper: 

''5th pick 4 threads 1st down, 2nd up, 3rd down, 4th up. 

Gth "4 " 1st up, 2nd down, 3rd up, 4th down. 

7th " 4 " 1st down, 2nd up, 3rd down, 4th vip. 

•' 4 " 1st up, 2nd down, 3rd up, 4th down. 

Threads 1 to 4 and picks E, F, G, H. This 



1st section 
4 threads | 

[8 th 

See Fig. 52. 



completes the first section, 4 threads and 8 picks. 

Now take the second section of 4 threads, Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8, 
in Fig. 52. First. part reads 4 threads and 4 picks, plain weave, 
commencing with the second thread of the plain weave, which will 
read on the design paper : 



42 




> i 

H S 



<! O 
(^ to 
ft- t« 

>-] 

& 

K 
H 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



35 



1st pick — 5th thread down, 6th up, 7th down, 8th up. 
2nd " — 5th " up, 6th down, 7th up, 8th down. . 
3rd " — 5th " down, 6th up, 7th down, 8th up. 
4th " — 5th. " up, 6th down, 7th up, 8th down. 

Second part of section 2 reads 4 threads and 4 picks, plain 
weave, which reads on the design paper : 

5th pick — 5th thread up, 6th down, 7th up, 8tli down. 
6th ." — 5th " down, 6th up, 7th down, 8th up. 
7th " — 5th " up, 6th down, 7th up, 8th down. 
8th " — 5th " down, 6th up, 7th down, 8th up. 

Fig. 53 is the same weaving plan as given in Fig. 52. 
The warp is dressed 1 black and 1 white. 
The filling is interwoven 1 white and 1 black. 




B 

■ 

BB 


; 8 

BBBB 


m B 


■ ■ 


■ 


fl 


■ I 


■ ■ 


1 


■ 


■BBI 


■■■ 


1 


■ 


flU 

■ D 


B BD 


B BQ 
D 


B B 
□ ■ 


■ 


B 


BQB BUB BBBHB 

man bqb bqb hb 


n Q D ■ 

D S ° ■„ 


BUB BUB BGBBIB 

BOB BUB ana ■■■ 


□ D D B 

a a a m 

BDB BOB BCJBflBB 



Fie. 54. 



Fiff. 55. 



Fig. 54. The design is on 8 threads and 8 picks all plain 



weave. 



The warp is dressed 1 black, 1 white, 1 black, 2 white, 1 
black, 1 white, 1 black; = 8 threads. 

The filling is interwoven, 1 white, 1 black, 1 white, 2 black, 

1 white, 1 black, 1 white ; = 8 picks. 

Fig. 55. This design is shown on 12 threads and 12 picks, 
all plain weave. 

The warp is dressed 1 black, 2 white, 2 black, 2 white, 2 
black, 2 white, 1 black; = 12 threads. 

The filling is interwoven, 1 white, 2 black, 2 white, 2 black, 

2 white, 2 black, 1 white ; =: 12 picks. 



36 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

All on the Plain Weave. 



1 Red 
1 Black 

1 Red 
1 Black 



16 Threads. 



16 Threads. 



3. 1 White 

c ixri -^ 1^20 Threads. 
2 White [ 

1 Black J 



2 White 
1 Black 



12 Threads. 



2 Black j 16 Threads. 
2 Green J 



1 Black 

2 Red 

1 Red 
1 Black 

1 Black 
1 White 

1 Black 

2 White 

2 White 

1 Black 

2 Black 
2 Green 



16 Picks. 



16 Picks. 



20 Picks. 



12 Picks. 



16 Picks. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

Sketch on point paper the effect produced by the following 
weaves and colorings. 



• • 

_• •_ 

• • _ 

• i 



WEAVE. 
(1) 

(2) same as (1) 

(3) same as (1) 

(4) same as (1) 

(5) same as (1) 

(6) 



WARP. 



• • • • 

• • • • 

• • •• 



Color 
Groun 



iJ}- 



Color— 2 ) ^^ 
Ground — 2.) 

Color— 2 ( ^^ 
Ground — 2 j 



Color— 4 ) _^ 
Ground — 4 ) 



Color— 2 2). 
Ground— 1 3 J ~^ 



Color 
Ground 



-t\=^ 



as warp 



as warp 



as warp 



as wai'p 



Color- 13 
Groun 



d— 4 . f — * 



as warp 



44 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



37 



• •_• • 

•• • •_! 

• • • •__ 

• •_• •_ 

• • •• 

• • • • 



(7) 

(8) same as (6) 
(9) 



•• • • 

•_• ••_ 



Ground — 2 



I- 



Color— 1 1 
Ground — 2 . 



=4 



Ground— 2 2 \ _, 
Color— 4 . / ~*^ 



as warj) 



Color 
Groun 



nd— 1 . i —^ 



Ground — 3 1 \ q 

Color— 4 .j— ® 



(10) 



I I CI* ! * 
• •• 

_•• • _I] 

• •• ■ _ 

• • • 

• • • 



Ground — 1 ^ 
No. 1 Color— 1 > =4 
No. 2 Color— 2 ) 



as warp 



(11) same as (10) 

(12) same as (10) 

(13) same as (10) 

(14) same as (10) 

(15) same as (10) 

(16) same as (10) 

(17) same as (10) 

(18) same as (10) 

(19) 

(20) same as (19) 

(21) same as (19) 

(22) same as (19) 







• 


• 




• 


• 




• 


• 






• 






• 



Ground — 1 1 1 _/ 
Color— 2 . i —^ 

Ground — 3 \ ^ 

Color— 3 i ~" 



Ground — 3 \ 

Color— 3 



=6 



Ground- 
Color — 



:'}- 



Ground — . 1 \ q 

Color— 'l.\ 

Ground— 1 1 32 |^_.<, 
Color— 113.$ —^^ 



Ground — . 1 3 
Color— 1 1 . 



Ground — 2 1 ( (, 

Color— 1 2 



No. 1 Color- 
No. 2 Ground- 



w 



as warp 

Color— 3 
Groiind — 3 



md— 1 \ 
r— 1/ 



Ground — 1 
Color- 



Ground — 1 
Color— 1 



Ground — . 3 \ „ 

Color— 2 1 i —'^ 

Ground— 1 3 3\_i„ 
Color— 1 3 1 J ~^^ 



Ground — 
Color — 

as warp 



.>)- 



=16 No. 2 Ground— All 



4 times twice 



No. 1 Color — 

No. 2 ^' 
No. 3 Ground- 



1112 2; 

1 1 1 2 2 > =24 

22222) 



No. 3 Ground— All 



No. 1 Color— 11122 
No. 2 " — 11122 
No. 3 Ground— 22 22 2 



=24 



No. 2 Color— 1 1 
No. 3 Groun 



d— 2 . / —^ 



No. 1 Color— 2 2 \ _j 
No. 2 Ground- 



22) 
-13r 



No. 1 Color— .41 
No. 2Ground— 13 j 



45 



88 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



••♦ 

• ••_ 

_• • • 

• •• 

• • • 

• • • 



(23) 



(24) same as (23) 

(25) same as (23) 

(26) plain 

(27) same as (26) 

(28) same as (26) 

(29) same as (26) 



WARP. 

No. 1 Color— 1 2 . . 2 
No. 2 " 1.11. 

No. 3 Ground— 1 12 21 

4 times 



_„. No, 1 Color— l\_o 
~^* No. 3 Grouud— 2 J ~ ^ 



No. 1 Color— 1 3 
No. 2 Ground 



J Ih^^ 



No. 1 Color— 2 
No. 2 Ground — 1 



=3 



6 times 4 times 



No. 1 Color— . 1 1 3 \ _-, ^ No. 1 Color— .131) 
No. 2 Ground— 1 1 3 2 j ~^-^ No. 2 Ground-13 3. j ^ 

Ground— 11 111 



No. 1 Color 3.11 

4 times 4 times 



=40 



Ground — 
No. 1 Color- 



1 111- 
1 l.J- 



20 



4 times 4 times 



Ground — 
No. 1 Color- 



Ground — 

No. 1 Color 



1^11-5 
-11./-^ 

11 111 



2 . 12 
3 times twice 



=24 



Sketch on point paper the effects produced by weaves 30 and 
31 warped and picked 1 color 

1 ground 
"2 



• •_•_♦._•_••_•_•_ 

•I*ZZ*Z»Z**I»Z*ZZZ 

_• •_»_•_••_•_•_• 

• •_•_•_• •_•_•_ 

•_•_•_• •_•_•_• 

Z»Z*Z*Z1ZI*I«Z*Z** 

•_•_•_« •_•_•_••_ 

_•_•_• •_•_•_• • 

•_•_• •_•_•_•_*•_ 

_•_• •_•_•_•_•_•• 

• • • • •~t» • • e S 



• 




^ 




^ 




9 






• 




■ 






• 




9 








• 


















• 








• 








• 






















• 












' ' 


« 














• 






























• 








• 








• 


• 




















• 
















e 










• 
































• 








• 










e 




















• 


























• 
































• 








• 










• 




















• 


















• 








• 


• 






























• 
















• 






















• 


















• 










• 






























• 






• 










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^ 



30 



31 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



39 




Fig. 56. 



V 



Design from a written formula. Suppose a design is re- 
quired similar to Fig. 56. The first question is; liow many 
threads and picks are neces- 
sary to form the full design ? 
Second ; how many threads 
and picks are necessary 
for the large body square 
at the lower left-hand 
corner ? Third ; how many 
threads and picks are 
necessary for the small 
border squares ? Fourth ; 
what weave will be the 
most suitable for the re- 
quired fabric ? 

A design should never 
be made without taking 
into consideration the re- 
quirements of each opera- 
tion and the effect to be 

produced. In the main 

body square of Fig. 56 the 

twill is running at an angle 

of .45°, and in the small 

squares the twill is running 

to the right and left in 

alternate squares. We 

wdll make our first design 

on 24 threads X 24 picks 

in one repeat of the design. 
First. Mark off design 

paper to the required di- 
mensions. 

Second. How many threads and picks are necessary for the 

large body square A at the left-hand lower corner? In this 

instance 18 X 18 are required. Mark off the design paper to the 

required number of threads and picks (See Fig. 58). 

Third. How many threads and picks are necessary for the 



Fiar. 57. 



47 



40 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



small border squares B and C ? In this case we will divide the 

border into four parts of 6 threads X 6 picks each way (See 

Fig. 59). 

Fourth. On examination of the skeleton design of Fig. 59, we 
y ^ notice that it can be divided 

into four sections, 1, 2, 3, 
4, as shown in Fig. 60. 

Fifth. Decide what 
weaves will be most suit- 
able for the required fabric. 
This design Fig. 56 shows 
a fine twill or diagonal, 
therefore we will use the 
3-harness twill, filling flush 
ig to right and which we 
will call class weave " Bl," 
also the 3-harness twill, 
warp flush -^j to left, and 
which we will call class 
weave " B2." 
Now to construct the design from a written formula or 

problem. 

PROBLEM. Dress Goods Design. 

24 threads and 24 picks. 
Section 1. 6 tlireads X 18 picks Bl. See first section Fig. 60, 61 

6 " 6 " B2. 





■— I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — I — 1 1 



Fig. 58. 



Section 2. 


6 


i( 


24 


u 


Bl. 


See second " 


Section 3. 


6 


11 


18 


'< 


Bl. 


See third " 




6 


(1 


6 


(( 


B2. 










24 








Section 4. 


6 


i( 


■6 


u 


B2. 


See fourth " 




6 


( 1 


6 


1( 


Bl. 






6 


(t 


6 


(( 


B2. 






6 


(> 


-6 


1( 


Bl. 





(( U 1( 



(( u u 



<( u u 



24 



Harness, Heddles and Eyes or Mails. At this point the 
student should begin to examine into the practical carrying out 
of his designs at the loom. The first step in this direction is to 
deal with the arrangement of the warp threads in the heddles on 



48 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



41 



Z 



-A 



tl 



tl 



tl 



tl 



V 



Fiff. 59. 



the harnesses, or, as it is termed, "warping and dressing;" and the 
next will be the method of actuating the harnesses by means of a 
chain, or order to produce 
the required pattern. 

In this, as in all other 
work, there must be some 
recognized means of con- 
yeying or indicating the 
order in which the threads 
must be drawn through the* 
harness. 

When the weaver is 
standing in front of the 
loom, Avhether hand or 
power, the harnesses are 
in front of him, as in Fig. 
62, which represents a 
common hand loom, such 
as is adapted for j^l^in 
weaving. It consists of 
four wooden posts framed 
together at the top by two 
long cross pieces. The 
two long pieces C C are 
called the capes of the 
loom. Between the two 
pairs of posts, forming, the 
ends of the loom, are 
placed two cylindrical 
beams ; the beam A being 
the warp beam, upon which 
the warp is wound, and 
B the cloth beam, upon 
which the cloth is wound 
as it is woven. 

The warp threads are placed parallel to each other, as 



I 



2 3 

Fig. 60. 



Y 



before described, and are carried from the waip beam A and 
attached to the cloth beam B. This is done by threading the 



49 



42 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



knotted ends of the threads upon a small rod, and wedging it into 
the slot or groove formed in the beam for that purpose, as shown 
at X in Fig. 63. 

In order to keep the threads in their relative positions and 
parallel to each other, two rods D D are inserted between the 
warp threads in such a manner that each thread passes over one 
'of the rods and under the other alternately, as shown. Thus a 
cross or leese is formed by the threads between the two rods, 
which not only keeps the threads in proper order, but enables the 

. weaver to detect with ease 
the proper position of any 
broken thread that he may 
have to repair. This 
arrangement of the threads 
is formed during the process 
of warping or warp dress- 
ing and slashing. 

After the warp has 
passed the leese it is then 
passed through the lieddles, 
as shown at H in Figs. 
62 and 63. The heddles 
are composed of a num- 
ber of threads or wires 
threaded between laths or 
harness shafts. Each wire or thread has a loop in the middle, or, 
instead, an eye called a mail or heddle eye is threaded upon it, 
through which the warp thread passes. There are two heddles 
shown at H H, one of which receives every alternate thread of 
the warp, and the other receives the remainder. Consequently, 
if either of them be raised, it will also raise the warp threads 
which have been threaded through the heddle eye or mails. 

The arrangement of the warp threads, and the various parts 
of the loom which operate them may be best understood by 
referring to Fig. 64, which is a diagram showing each warp thread 
separately. 

In Fig. 64 the harness shafts are ,shown connected and 
balanced by cords passing over pulleys, P P, and the lower part 




oa 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



43 



attaclied to the treadles T. The right treadle is shown depressed, 
consequently it raises the other treadle and the harness. Thus 




Fig. 62. 

half of the warp can be alternately raised for the passage of tlie 
shuttle. 

The warp is kept in tension by means of weights connected 




Fig. 63. 

to a rope passing once or twice round the warp beam. The cloth 
beam is provided with a ratchet wheel and pawl M, also with a 
handle Z, for winding on the cloth as it is woven. 

In Fig. 64 only one each of the leeses is shown, but as 



91 



44 



TEXTILE DESIGIS". 



there must be one to each pair of warp threads, the required 
number must be provided for. -Thus, if there are five hundred 
threads per inch in the width of the cloth, there must be 250 
leeses per inch in the warp, or 250 threads per inch on each 
harness. But as the heddles are composed of material much 




Fig. 64. 

thicker than the warp threads, they necessarily take up more 
room, and could not be placed upon one pair of harnesses in 
weaving fine warps. In such cases more harnesses are used, each 
having its share of the threads, and half of them are raised at 
once so as to raise one-half of the warp threads. 



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1 2 3 4567 8 91011 1213 14 15 16 17 IB 19 20 21 222324 



Problem 1 of the Ex- 
amination Paper carried out 
to its full extent, called one 
repeat of tlie design. 



52 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 

PART 11. 



ACTUATING THE HARNESSES. 

Drafting and Reduction. This is an important part of 
designing, and necessary for the production of extended patterns 
(Dn a limited number of harnesses. 

Although presenting no great difficulty to those wishing to 
understand the operation, yet it is surprising that so much igno- 
rance exists in reference to it, •even by those conversant with other 
aspects of the art of weaving. In the design for the pattern, 
drafting deals with 2 or more threads which are found to be 
alwaj^s working alike, that is, always up and always down 
together, throughout the weaving operation. This unites them in 

one motion or harness, instead of ^ 

employing separate harnesses for each 3 

individual thread. By this means [ . 



a great variety of effects may be -p^^^ gg 

obtained, and large patterns produced 

in looms having the simplest appliances. Especially is this the 
case in the weaving of stripes, in looms capable of allowing only a 
limited number of harnesses, and with only one shuttle. But for 
the production of checks and stripes requiring a large number of 
picks and threads before the pattern repeats, the Dobby head 
or an equivalent motion is necessary. For this reason, although 
a design may be drafted so as to employ but few harnesses, yet the 
number of picks cannot be reduced, but must be fully carried out 
to the extent of the design. 

For the purpose of representing the harnesses, draw hori- 
zontal lines after the manner of Fig. 65, and then adopt a system 
of indicating the warp threads. A good, neat method is shown in 
Fig. 66. Here the horizonJ:al lines represent the harness shafts, 
and the vertical lines the warp threads. The point at which the 



55 



46 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



vertical line stops indicates the hecldle through which the warp 
thread is drawn. This form indicates at a glance the order of the 
draft. Another method is shown in Fig. 67, but as will be pres- 
ently shown, this is not as convenient, and it is better to employ 
this manner of marking for another purpose. A third form (see 
Fig. 68) employs numbers instead of the vertical lines ; this form 

is commonly used, and is very con- 
- venient. A still more convenient 
_ method is to use design paper ; this 
will be resorted to later on, but, for 
the beginner, it is better to work on 
the plan shown in Fig. Q6. When 
he has thoroughly mastered the sys- 
tem of drafting, he can resort to whatever method he finds most 
convenient. 

Let us turn to the actuating of the harnesses to produce the 
design. It will be most readily dealt with by following the 
method employed by hand-loom weavers, as this will enable the 
question of drafting and the actuating of the harnesses to be con- 
sidered at the same time. Suppose a plain cloth is to be woven. 
Where every alternate thread is alike, as explained under the 
head of plain cloth, there would be only 2 harnesses required, 
one to actuate the first, third, fifth, etc., and the other to actuate 
the second, fourth, sixth, etc., threads. 



Fig. 66. 



Fig. 67. 



-i 

Fig. 68. 



The draft and treading plan as made for the hand-loom 
weaver is shown in Fig. 69. The horizontal lines represent the 
harnesses ; the vertical lines at the left the warp threads ; the 
vertical lines at the right the hand-loom" treadles ; the cross at 
each intersection indicates the harness to be raised by the treadle ; 
and the numbers upon the vertical lines at the right indicate the 
order in which the treadles are to be depressed. In this case the 
weaver depresses his right foot for the first pick, his left for the 



56 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



47 



Fig. 69. 



second, and so on. For a plain cloth this is exceedingly simple, 
more especially when only 2 harnesses are employed, but some- 
times 4 or more are used; 

It will be well to examine 
the di'afts for the use of 4 ^ 
or more harnesses, as it will be 
the simplest means of making 
the subject clear and preparing • 
the way for more advanced work. 

Let us turn to Figs. 70 
and 7 1 . They are both plans for 
weaving plain cloth upon 4 harnesses, the first by what, is 
known as the straight draft-, and the second by a cross draft. 
This means that in the first case the warp threads are drawn 
through each of the heddles consecutively, and in the other that 
they are crossed from the first to the third and second to fourth. 
Now, if the threads are to be raised alternately, the harnesses 
carrymg the alternate threads must be raised at the same time, no 
matter what position they occupy in the series. This first portion 
must be thoroughly understood. The student must accustom 
himself to following the threads, and actuating the harnesses 
which carry them in exactly the order required. 






Fig. 70. 



Fig. 71. 



In Fig. 70, treadle No. 1 is attached to the first and third 
harnesses, always counting from front to back or fi-om that nearest 
you. These 2 harnesses carry between them alternate threads. 
Treadle No. 2 is attached to the second and fourth harnesses and 
actuates the threads not touched by No. 1 ; consequently by 
depressing the treadles alternately, plain cloth will result. In 
Fig. 71, the first and second harnesses are attached to No. 1 
treadle, and the third and fourth to No. 2 ; the reason for this 



57 



48 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



will be apparent on examining the draft, for the first and second 
harnesses in this case carry the threads corresponding to those 
carried by the first and third in Fig. 70, so that the result will be 
the same. 

An explanation must be made here to those who have some 
knowledge of power looms. The system of attaching jacks and 
vibrators of the harnesses in power looms is different from attach- 
ing the treadles in the hand loom. .Thus, in making the plans, 
it would appear at first sight that the process in one case is 
exactly the reverse of that of the other. In the power ' loom 
there is a separate jack and vibrator attached to each harness, 
while in the hand loom each treadle is attached to as many har- 





































- 








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, 








_J 




























































1-' 


{' 


■ 













































'^ 


, 






















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Fig. 72. 



Fig. 73. 



nesses as are required to be raised or depressed at once. The 
difference is : the hand-loom weaver depresses one treadle only for 
one pick, whereas the power loom depresses as many jacks or 
vibrators as there are harnesses to be acted upon. Thus the hand- 
loom treadle represents one pick of filling or one horizontal line of 
the design. This apparent confusion is overcome by reading 
horizontal for vertical, and vice versa. This, however, will be 
more fully explained later. 

Now leaving the plain cloth drafting, let us consider twilled 
fabrics. What is known as the 3-harness or prunella twill is 
dealt with in the same manner as the plain weave, hut 3 har- 
nesses or sometimes 6 are employed instead of 2, thus simply 
doubling the number, as has been shown in the plain weave. In 
working 4-harness twills the same principles apply, but there is a 
little more complication of detail. 

Take first the ordinary 4-harness twill ; suppose we wish 

3 

to work with the draft given in Figs. 70 and 71, because it is 



&8 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



49 





1 


I2j3|4|5|e!7|8l 


- 


H 






■ 






G 












I 


i 


- 


F 




1 










E I 


■ 












D 














C 






1 








1 






B 








1 I 










A 










1 




































1 


2 


3 


454 


3 


2 







quite clear tllat as there are only 4 threads in the design it can 
be woven on 4 harnesses. We must now look to the order of 
treading, or building the harness chain, as it is termed, or raising 
the harnesses. To follow out the principle explained in connec- 
tion with Figs. 70 and 71 it would be necessary to raise the 
harnesses in the order shown in Figs. 72 and 73. 

It is necessary, to follow each thread, 
and ascertain whether or not they follow in 
the order required. 

Having reduced the design to the least 
number of requisite harnesses, the working 
plan or chain is found by taking the con- 
secutive numbers from No. 1 to the highest 
figure shown beneath the design and placing 
them side by side in their order, according ^^S- '^4. 

to the requirements of the design, so that they shall read 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and so on. This will be seen in Fig. 74, which is 
given to show the principle of drafting and reduction in its sim- 
plest form. It is, however, the same as applied to the more 
elaborate patterns. The numbers beneath the design are used for 
the purpose of obtaining those threads that are working alike, and 
also to obtain the nature and extent of the draft. 

Fig. 75 shows the drafting or the threads drawn through the 
harnesses, as taken from the design, and the numbers beneath 
correspond with those found under the design. The horizontal 
lines represent the harnesses, and the vertical lines represent the 
threads. 

Fig. 74 represents a diamond pattern of which the design 
stands upon 8 threads. See numbers on top. Begin at the 
bottom at the left-hand corner, and note the dotted spaces of each 
thread, which means their manner of working, from the bottom to 
the top. When 2 or more threads are marked exactly alike, 
the same number at the bottom represents all of that kind. Thus 
the 1st thread is marked No. 1, and, of course, will require one 
harness to work it ; the 2d thread is working differently from the 
1st, and will require another harness, marked No. 2 ; the 3d, 4th 
and 5th threads are also different from any of the others, and so 
will require different harnesses for each. They are marked Nos. 



69 



50 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



3, 4 and 5. The 6tli thread is marked 4 because it is working 
like the preceding thread marked 4, the 7th thread is marked 3 
because it is like the preceding thread marked 3 ; and the 8th 
thread is marked 2 for the reason that it is working like the first 
thread marked 2. The numbers under the design now read 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2 ; therefore the highest number is 5, wliich 
means that the design requires 5 harnesses to weave it. What- 































1 


2 


$ 


4 


5 


6 


7 


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• 




• 










3 








• 








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1 






• 












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• 
















































1 


2 


5 


4 


5 


4 


3 


^ 




■■"■■ 




Fig. 75. 



Fig. 76. 



ever the highest number may be, it represents the number of 
haniesses required. In this instance five parallel lines are drawn 
for the harnesses and marked up the side 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Now pro- 
ceed to draw vertical lines to represent the threads drawn through 
the harnesses, indicated by tlie numbers under the design, and 







\ 


2 


3kl5 


6 7 8l9llOllllJ2ll3ll4ll5ll6ll7il8II9l20IZ122123l24l 


- 


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-k 1 1 ^ 1 ^ ^H H^ 


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41^6 7 


8 567 


sis 10 1112 3 lonizl 





Fig. 77. 

just in the order in which they stand. No. 1 is drawn upon the 
first harness, No. 2 upon the second, No. 3 upon the third. No. 4 
upon the fourth, No. 5 upon the fifth, No. 6 again upon the fourth, 
No. 7 upon the third, and No. 8 upon the second. (See Fig. 75.) 
Having finished the draft, the next proceeding is to obtain the 
working plan or chain, which is a reduction of the design, so far 
as the threads are concerned. In this case the consecutive num- 
bers from 1 to 5 are found together, so that the only requirement 
is to copy exactly the first 5 threads of the design as they stand, 
as shown in Fig. 76. 



60 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



51 



The next examples comprise mixed weaves and are of a more 
extended and practical character. For the purpose of gaining the 
working plan from them, use the consecutive numbers from No. 1 
to the highest. These are not all together as in Fig. 74. 







r 


1 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


$ 


5 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14|I5|1G 


17 


18 


19 


1 


21 


22 


23 


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■ 













































II 




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1 




























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1 














( 
























3 








1 




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1 




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1 


1 


3 


4 


i 


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1 


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6 


7 


8 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


3 


10 


11 


12 







Fig. 78. 

Fig. 77 consists of 2.4 threads and 4 picks, and is made up of 
three different weaves. Each weave is repeated, so that the 
first four numbers under each different weave must be taken for the 
working plan or chain, which gives the numbers consecutively, 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Fig. 78 represents the Draw- 
ing Draft. This design requires 12 harnesses to weave it. (See 
the chain draft of Fig. 79.) 

There is another consideration in reference to drafting which 
ought to" be understood, and that is, that frequently the full df.^sign 
is not given, only the draft and work- 
ing plan, so that the weave intended 
to be produced is not always intel- 
ligible. Many designers adopt this 
method for tlie purpose of economiz- 
ing time, and in practical work in 
the mill it may be recommended, not 
only for concealment, but because the draft and working plans are 
all that are necessary for the pattern weaver, chain builder or 
loom fixer. 

In order to obtain the full design from the reduced working 
plan and drawing-in draft, reverse the metliod adopted in the 
previous examples and follow the draft and chain in the same 
manner as with the design when making a reduction. Number 





D 








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C 








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z 
— 1 


B 




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1|2 


3 


4l5 6 7 


8 910ni2 



Fig. 79. 



61 



52 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



the threads consecutively at the top of the drawing-iii draft, so 
that the place for each particular thread in the extended design 
will be indicated. A simple illustration will explain this. In 
this pattern (see chain draft, Fig. 80), 6 harnesses are required, 



r 

E 
D 


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a 


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5 


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Fig. 80. 



Fig. 81. 



on which are drawn 12 threads to complete the pattern. (See 
drawing draft, Fig. 81.) Thus the working plan contains 6 
threads. Another method sometimes adopted shows the working 
chain of the design, as in Fig. 80, but has the draft indicated by 

figures, and not on parallel lines. For 
instance, take the draft for Fig. 81, the 
numbers for which would read 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, 3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 4. To make this 
clear, draw as many horizontal lines as 
represented by the highest number, 
which in this case is 6 ; then number 
the lines consecutively, and proceed to 
draw the vertical lines upon them 
according to the numbering of the threads. This gives the draft 
as in Fig. 81. For design represented by these drafts, see Fig. 82. 
Examples. Reduce Figs. 83, 84 and 85 to the fewest pos- 
sible number of harnesses. 



112 34 


5 6 7 819 10 11 12 




1 


C ■ 

dX 1 

c I M 

B lifli 

--Mwt 


iUi|| 


IE21? 


563 2|l 65 4 



Fig. 82. 



TWILLING. 

Flushes. Diagonal twills or cords that run obliquely across 
the cloth may vary in size according to the number of harnesses 
on which they may be drawn in consecutive order. This manner 
of drawing is technically termed a straight over-draw. Twills are 
generally named according to the number of threads that will 



62 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



53 



complete the design. This is technically termed a repeat. Thus, 

weave is known as a 3-harness twill, filling flush; the weave 

A 

is called the 3-harness twill, warp flush. It may be stated 

here that when practicable, the smallest number of harnesses 





Fig. 83. 



Fig. 84, 



should be raised and the greatest number depressed in weaving 
special makes of cloth. In tins manner the wear and tear of the 
yarn is much reduced; the only objection to this, being that in a 
warp flush face weave, the surface of the goods is woven face 
down and cannot be seen by the weaver. 

The 4-harness twill, filling flush, is formed by the filling 
passing over 3 threads of warp and interweaving at the fourth 





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Fig. 86. 

thread. The 5-harness twill, warp flush, is formed by the fill- 
ing passing over only 1 thread of warp, interweaving at the 
second thread and passing under 4 warp threads. The 5-harness 
twill, filling flush, is exactly the reverse of the warp flush. 
Fig. 86, plain weave; Fig. 87, 3-harness twill ; Fig. 88, 4-harness 



68 



54 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



twill ; Fig. 89, 5-liarness twill; Fig. 90, 6-liarness twill. It should 
be understood that all marks, unless otherwise explained, are 
risers, and all blanks or spaces are sinkers: therefore, in Figs. 
87, 88, 89, 90, the fillings predominate on the face and are called 
respectively 3, 4, 5 and 6 harness filling flush weaves. If the 
weaves had been reversed, that is, if crosses or black marks had 
been put in the squares which are now blank, the weaves would 
be warp flush weaves. We now understand a regular twill to run 
in small diagonal lines, bars or cords, at an angle of 45 degrees 
or obliquely across the fabric. It may be a filling flush, warp 
flush, or an even-balanced twill, according to the weave used. 



WMM 



B&^ 



m 



m 



Fig. 86. 



Fig. 87. 



Fig. 88. 



Fig. 89. 



Fig. 90. 



When the consecutive lifting of the harnesses or scheme of 
successive interlacing with filling is changed, so as to raise the. 
harnesses at intervals of 1, 2, 3 or more from each other, the twill 
or diagonal stripe is said to be broken, and it will be observed 
that the flushing does not run at an angle of 45 degrees, but is 
broken according to the intervals of interlacing and the disposition 
of the harnesses. 

We must now consider this broken effect as compared with 
the regular disposition of the harnesses running in consecutive 
order. When the harnesses can be raised regularly, at intervals 
of 2, 3 or more from each other, the weave is said to be a Sateen 
of a perfect order ; but if the intervals cannot be so arranged, or 
the weave will not admit of this regular intermission, then the 
weave is not a true sateen, although we find many of these imper- 
fect weaves forming the groundwork of many fabrics. 

The smallest number of threads that can be arranged to 
make a true sateen is the 5-harness twill, the arrangement of 
which is 1, 3, 5, 2, 4. Six harnesses do not admit of such a dis- 
position. The 7-harness twill is perfect, admitting an interval of 



64 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



55 



1 or 2 harnesses. Eight harnesses is the lowest number used 
in making an evenly numbered weave that can be transformed 
into a true sateen. By experimenting we find that by an interval 
of 2 we have a most perfect sateen. The 9-harness twill is per- 
fect, each alternate harness lifting. The 10-harness twill is a 
good sateen, every third harness being raised. The same order of 
interweaving is shown by the 11-harness twill, which makes a 
perfect sateen. The 13-harness weave is formed by raising every 
third. The 15 is made by lifting every other third harness. The 
16-harness sateen is made by omitting 2 or 4 threads. It may 



^ 



^^^^ BS"' iB"= 



Fig. 91. 



Fig. 92. 



Fig. 93. 



Fifj. 94. 



be remarked here that all twills of an uneven number, except 
the 3-harness twill, will produce perfect sateen arrangements. 
With the even numbers imperfections are often found. The pre- 
ceding remarks apply either to the filling or warp flush weaves, 
where 1 thread is either up or down and the remaining number 
covered either by filling or warp. 

Our next consideration will hQ fancy twills, or effects that are 
obtained by using any number of harnesses in any fixed weave. 
For instance, to make the 4-harness twill, 1 up and 3 down, into 
another variety or effect, we can take 2 up and 2 down. This is 
called the 4-harness Cassimere or Shalloon twill. With a larger 
twill the flushing can be varied by interspersing the weave vdth 
plain texture, as, for instance, the 7-harness changed to 1 up 1 down 
1 up 1 down 2 up and 1 down, and so on. 

Fancy Twills. Examples are here given (Figs. 91 to 100) 
of what are termed fancy twills, and it will be seen how an endless 
variety of patterns may be obtained from them. 

Twills that run obliquely will form the groundwork for 
wave effects, either in the direction of the filling, across the fabric, 
or in the direction of the warp, that is, with the length of the 



65 



56 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



fabric. Take, for example, the 4-harness twill, filling flush ; draw 
this straight over on 4 harnesses and raise the harnesses as shown 
in Fig. 101. By studying this wave weave, we find that it is the 
common 45-degree twill for 4 picks and that it then twills to the 
left, thus : 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, which makes a zigzag or wave effect 

in the direction of the warp. If we use the 4-harness — twill and 

^ 3 

draw the threads through the harness, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2 (see Fig. 

102), which is the same order as given in the preceding example, 



Vm y 11 bw 1 1 1 1 




Fig. 95. 



Fig. 96. 



Fig. 97. 



Fig. 98. 



the effect or result in the fabric is a zigzag across the piece or in 
the direction of the filling. 

Reverse Twills. In all the regular twills, as shown in Figs. 
87 to 90, the filling predominates on the face of the cloth, and 
the warp on the back of the cloth. Take the 5-harness twill for 
an example ; if the warp is of one color and the filling another, as 
there is 1 thread up and 4 threads down, it follows that four-fifths 
of the filling will be on the face and one-fifth on the back, thus 
changing the appearance of the filling from one side of the fabric 
^^^^^^.^^ ^^______P___. to the other. This is called revers- 

II JiU ^jtOPt ^''^-^ ^^^^ twill. It is very exten- 
sively applied in different branches 
of weaving, particularly in the 
cotton and linen trades. We will 
take for example the reversing of 
the 4-harness twill, and make 
a stripe of 12 threads warp flush and 12 threads filling flush. 
In this example (Fig. 103) we notice that it takes 4 extra 
harnesses, that is, 4 harness for the filling flush and 4 harness 
for the warp flush weaves. Patterns of this description may be 
extended to any width of stripe, as they are formed and regulated 




Fig. 99. 



Fig. 100. 



66 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



57 



entirely by the quantity of warp drawn on each set of harnesses. 
These examples will be sufl&cient to show the nature of reversed 
twill stripes, the varieties of which may be increased at pleasure 
by means of additional harnesses, and by varying the size of one 
or both stripes. 

The next variation 
of the reversed twill is 
to form on the same 
stripe, the warp flush 
and filling flush effect 
alternately. (Fig. 104.) 
We find that there are 
12 picks filling flush 

weave and 12 picks warp flush weave. We will now go a little 
farther with these examples, combining the two systems so as to 
make a checker or dice board effect. In making designs of this 
character, attention should be drawn to the divisions of the two 

weaves. Where they 



































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Fig. 101. 



Iffl 



unite, the line must be 
distinctly defined, that 
is, to make them uifite 
in a perfect cut. This 
will be better understood 
by referring to Fig, 104, 
at the extreme sides of 
which, top and bottom, it will be found that the raising marks of 



Fisc. 102. 



I I I I I I M r 

■ 



Fig. 103. 

one division fall exactly on the sinking marks of the other com- 
partment. This figure represents a perfect cut. 

DIAPER WORK AND POINT DRAWS. 
Damask. From what has been said in regard to fancy twills, 



67 



58 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



and from examples that have been worked out, it will not be 
difficult to understand the drafting of the cloth known as Damask. 
Instead of straight-over drafts, damask designs are usually woven 
by means of what is termed a diamond draft ; that is, a draft that 
runs from the front harness to the back harness and then returns 
to the front in the opposite order, thus forming a zigzag figure on 
the harness. Sometimes there are patterns of a more complex 
character woven on this system of drafting. This will be ex- 
plained under the head of double, triple and alternate diamond 
drafts. 




Fig. 104. 

The length or number of picks in the repeat of the design is 
worked out on the same principle as the draft for the warp. (See 
Fig. 105.) Whatever variety, therefore, is adopted for the 
ground work or plan, according to the foregoing explanations, the 
result of the extended pattern will be nearly double the number of 



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Fig. 105. 

ends in the warp. The additional threads and formation of twill 
will be in direct opposition to the original ground plan. As the 
filling is also carried out on the same principle as the warp, the 
design is nearly doubled by the picks, the resulting design or twill 



§8 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



59 



being run in the opposite direction. Thus a square or diamond 
figure is commonly produced. It must be particularly noticed 
tliat there is only one thread drawn on tlie first and last harness, 
and that the filling returns on the same scheme, so the whole 
design will be nearly four times the original figure. 



•Fio^. 106. 



Fig. 107. 



The. smaller weaves of this kind produce only a limited 
number of figures, generally a small diamond with a dot in the 
center, which gives the resemblance of an eye ; hence this variety 
of design is called a Bird's-eye. But when we use 8 harnesses 
or more, they admit of considerable diversity in flushmg, twilling 
and the addition of plain texture, thus deviating from the formal 



y_ 4 4 4- 4 4 _ 

1 I 3 i 3 J 3 


B 2 2 2 2^2 
III III 



Fig. 108. DOUBLE DRAFT. 

Bird's-eye. The design now assumes the appearance of damask 
work. 

Double Draft. These examples show what a great variety of 
figures can be woven on the damask work principle, especially 
those of a large ground or original figure. All of these figures 
are produced by the extension of the diamond draft. As the 
resources of fancy weaving are mexhaustible, various other 
changes can be effected by merely diversifying the order or suc- 
cession of the dtaft independently of the position of the filling. 



69 



60 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



As every extension of the draft in this manner enlarges the 
figure in a duplicate proportion, that is, as the square of the 
number of threads in one set of the draft, such patterns, when 
the harnesses are numerous, will occupy a considerable space on 
design paper. In all double drafts it should be understood that' 
the fillmg or picks are extended in the same order as the warp 
draft. 




6 6 6. 

5 5_5 5 

4 4 4 4. 

_3 3 3 1_ 

2 2 2 2 



DOUBLE DBAFT. 



Fig. 109. 

The double draft. Figs. 108 and 109, with any system that 
may be adopted, always produces two square or diamond effects. 
These are formed one within the other, and are agam surrounded 
by others of the same character. 

Triple Drafts. Fig. 110. A triple draft enlarges the dimen- 
sions of these patterns still further, producing three similar designs, 
one within the other. These figures are generally termed concentric 
designs. From this example it Avill appear that any number of 
concentric figures may be formed by repeating the draft any 
number of times straight over the harnesses in one direction, and 
by returnmg in the opposite direction an equal number* of times. 

Alternate Drafts. Fig. 111. Another method of diversifying 
the drafts of lined work patterns is by dividing the harnesses into 
two sets. Take 10 harnesses, for example, which, when divided, 



70 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



61 



should form 2 sets of 5 each. On either set we can make a diamond 
point, double or triple draft. This arrangement throws the group of 
small figures produced by each set of harnesses into alternate 
squares, somewhat resembling the draft-board pattern, each 
square again being composed of diaper or damask work. The 



H 



Fig. 110. TRIPLE DEAFT. 

following draft is an explanation in itself. To find the number 
of harnesses required for any lined work design, either from the 
fabric or design paper, count the threads from the center of "one 
figure to the center of the surrounding figure. This will give the 
number of harnesses. If a square be foimed of which this is a 
diagonal, and is repeated four times, but inverted so that any one 







































































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Fig. 111. ALTERNATE DRAFT. 

corner of the design may be a common center, and allowing ooly 
one thread for each of the points, both by the warp and filling it 
will give one complete set of the design. 

Damask work designs are used to considerable advantage in 
the linen trade, and also to some extent in cottons. This class of 
work makes good designs for the shawl trade, provided the warp 
is of one color and the filling of some darker shade of another 
color. 



71 



62 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES ON DAHASK PATTERNS. 

1. Form a check from the accompanying damask stripes 
a h c d e f. 



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2. Make damask stripe designs on 48 ends from weaves g 
and li. 

3. Make check designs from l^liree stripes (Question 2). 

4. Make two original damask stripe and corresponding check 
designs. 



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72 



• TEXTILE DESIGN. 



63 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Work out the designs from the following drafts and 
chain plans. 

2. Work out the designs obtained by using chain plan M 
with drafts G, H, K, L. 

3. As No. 2, but with chain plan N. 



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(Continued on next page.) 



73 



64 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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74 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



65 



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75 



66 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES IN DRAFTING. 

Reduce each of the following designs to weave on the fewest 
possible. number of shafts, giving draft and chain. 







78 



TEXTILE DESIGK. 



67 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

Draft each of the following designs on fewest possible shafts 
and give chain. 



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S 



68 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

Make draft and chain plan for each of the following designs, 
giving good workable drafts. 



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78 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



69 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make good working drafts and chain plans for designs 
A and B and supply chain plans for two original designs to 
weave in the same draft. 

2. Make one draft to work the two accompanying designs 
C and D and give the chain plan for each. 

3. Kun out the accompanying design E until complete, 
then draft on 28 shafts and give chain plan. 



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79 



70 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



4. Give draft and chain plan to weave design 
F on the fewest possible shafts; also give chain plan 
to weave it with draft G. 

5. Give two original designs and chain plans to 
weave with draft G. 

6. Give chain plan to weave design H with 
draft G. 



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39 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



71 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

Give designs and warping and wefting plans to produce the 
following effects in single clotli. 





81 



72 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 




EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make designs, drafts and chain plans for two-stripe 
patterns, thus : 

1. 39 ends of plan " a," 13 ends of plan '' a ' reversed in twill 
13 ends of plan " a," 13 ends of plan " a " reversed in twill 

2. 24 ends of plan " 6," 12 ends of plan " 6 " reversed in twill 
24 ends of plan " ?>," 48 ends of plan " 6 " reversed in twill 

2. Make designs, drafts and chain plans for two-stripe 
patterns, thus : * 

1. 24 ends of plan " c," 12 ends of plan " c " reversed back to face 
24 ends of plan " c," 12 ends of plan " c " reversed back to face 

2. 8 ends of 2 and 2 twill, 16 ends of plan " d " 
8 ends of 2 and 2 twill, 8 ends of plan " cZ" 

16 ends of plan "cZ " reversed back to face, S ends of plan " d " 

3. Give designs and chain plans for three-stripe figures to 
weave in the accompanying draft " e," supplying your own weaves. 

4. Do you consider that the following combination "/" 
would give a perfect cloth? If not, give two perfect combinations 
introducing one of these weaves in each. 

5. Give design, draft and chain plan to produce a stripe 
figure similar to the accompanying suggestion "(/," supplying 
your own weaves. 




I REPEAT 



B2 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



73 



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83 



74 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Fill in the accompanjdng Fig. 1 with the following 
weaves : A : 2 and 2 twill to right. B : 2 and 2 twill to left. 
C : 2 and 2 hopsack. Make clean cuts at the joinings and give* 
draft and chain plan for your design. 

2. Make a design with draft and chain-plan to produce the 
accompanying Fig. 2, using your own weaves. 

3. Make a check figure by a combination of jDlans A, B, C, 
giving draft and chain plan for your design. 

4. Make a design for a. check figure to weave in same draft 
and to be composed of same weaves as accompanying stripe 
design D. 

5. As No. 4, but with stripe design E. 

6. Make one check and one stripe design to weave in the 
accompanying draft F and to have the same weaves. 



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84 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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76 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Fill up the vacant space in plan B with weave A, 
joining equally at both edges, and run out to form a diagonal 
figure. 

2. Make two designs for diagonal figures, using plan C 
as the basis for each. 

3. Make a design to produce a diagonal figure on 24 ends 
and 48 picks by a combination of weaves D and E. 

4. Give design to produce diagonal Fig. F, supplying 
your own weaves. 

5. Make an original design for diagonal figure to weave on 
36 threads. 



wl [ •[•I I I I I I I I I I [ I I I I I I 1 * 1 *1*1* 1 1* 1 * 1 1* 1 * 1 * 

• _ • • . •• a» •••• • 

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^^ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ**Z****Z**Z** 

• • •.••.•._**_****z 

• • ••_••_••••_•.•_ 

• •±_***.*_**_*** 

• ••••_••_••••_• 

• •♦_**_*^**_*JI_* 

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u 



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n 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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87 



78 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



SATEEN WEAVES. 

Satin. Real satin is a silk fabric in whicli the warp is 
allowed to float over the filling in such a manner as to cover it 
entirely and present a smooth, lustrous face. 

Satinet is a mixture or union cloth in which the face shows 
only a woolen filling, the cotton warp being covered by it. Fig. 
113 is the weave for a cheap imitation satin, known in some 
districts as " Kentucky Jean." 

These weaves produce what their name implies, a satin effect. 
They are very extensively used in cotton, linen and silk goods, 
also in woolen and worsted fabrics. In the manufacture of 



WARP 




Fig. 112. 






T 


w 


1 


L 


L 
I 


^ 










D 








1 




C 




■ 






B 


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A 














^ 


3 


4 


5 





Fiff. 114. 




damask and linen table-covers they form nine-tenths of th^ 
product. In cotton goods they are used for making stripes, and 
in woolen goods they form such cloths as Venetians, doeskins, 
beavers and kerseys. They are constructed usually from a twil] 
weave, and this principle of interweaving is sometimes employed 
where the object is partly ornamental, as in satins that are used 
largely for tiimmings and for ladies' dress goods. In such cases 
the first object is to produce a highly lustrous surface, perfectly 
smooth and showing no pattern. 

If we take one class as typical, in order to show the peculiar 
arrangement and its effects upon the fabric, it may serve as a 
guide to us when dealing with patterns for ornamentation. These 
weaves are of tAvo distinct classes ; those in which the warp pre- 
dominates on the face, called the warp flush sateen, and those in 
which the filling predominates on the face, known as the filling 
flusli sateen. 

The peculiarity of this kind of weave is that the order of 
interweaving the two sets of threads does not follow consecu- 
tively, but at definite intervals ; especial care is taken that they 
do not follow consecutively at any point. 



88 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



79 



An example of the simplest kind, and one most commonly 
employed, is derived from the 5-harness common twill (Fig, 114), 
where the filling predominates on the face and runs to the right 
at an angle of 45 degrees. Consecutively this is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, but 
by changing this weave over to a sateen weave (see Fig. 115), 
it will be observed that the order of interweaving is at set 
intervals. 

To obtain the combination from which to design a sateen, 
take the number of harnesses of the original twill weave on which 
it can be woven, and divide it into two parts. These must be 
neither equal nor must one be the multiple of the other, nor 
should they be divisible by a third number. In constructing the 
weave (Fig. 115) in accordance with the rule, the number of 
harnesses on which the twill (Fig. 114) is woven, in this case five, 
is divided into two parts, thus giving two and three. 




Fiff. 116. 



■ 

Fig. 117. 





Fig. 118. 



Fig. 119. 



The method of constructing sateen by means of these two 
figures is to use either the two or the three as the number with 
which to count; If we use three as the number, it will be found 
that the picks of the twill would be used in the following order : 
A, D, B, E, C, which produces the sateen weave shown in Fig. 
115. This is a filling flush sateen weave and the reverse of the 
warp flush weave (Fig. 116). This latter is constructed after the 
same manner as the filling flush weave, except that the one down 
and four up warp flush weave is used. 

From a 6-harness twill no regular sateen can be made, the 
number of harnesses not being divisible according to the rule. 
An irregular weave can be produced, but it is not desirable, as 
there will be two threads or two picks running consecutively in 
some parts of the weave. The best combination is made by using 
the threads of the twill in the following order : 1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4. (See 
Figs. 117 and 118.) 



89 



80 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



The 7-harness sateen can be obtained according to rule. (See 
Figs. 119 and 122.) 

As a farther demonstration, let us take the 8-harness filling 
flush twill, 1 up and 7 down. (Fig. 120.) 

According to the* rule the numbers in this case are 3 and- 
5. Four and 4 would be equal, 6 and 2 would be divis- 
ible by a third number ; consequently they would not be correct. 
Take 3 as the number for counting. The first pick of the 
sateen is the first pick of the twill ; the second pick is found by 
adding 3 to tlie fii st pick, which makes it the fourth pick of 
the regular twill; then add 3 to 4, which makes it tlie seventh 
pick of the twill; to this 7, 3 is added, which shows that 
the fourth pick of the sateen is the tenth of the twill, 
but as tiie twill repeats on 8 picks, the second corresponds to 

the tenth and is the fourth 
of the sateen ; to the second 
pick 3 is added, which makes 
it the fifth of tlie twill and 
also the fifth of the sateen; 
to the fifth pick 3 is added, 
v^hich makes the eighth of 
Fig. 120. Fig. 121. the twill the sixth of the 

sateen ; to the eighth 3 is 
added, which makes 11; the third pick is equivalent to 
the eleventh and seventh of the sateen ; to the third 3 is added, 
so that the sixth of the twill is the eighth of the sateen. 
If 3 is again added, the first pick of the twill will be' the next 
one to be used, thus showing that the repeat of the weave has 
been obtained. The 8-harness sateen is formed by using the 
picks of the twill in the following order: 1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 3, 6. (See 
Fig. 121.) 

In laying out a cloth of this description the number of 
threads in both the warp and filling is of the greatest importance. 
The warp threads in a warp flush weave should be placed as close 
together as their diameters will permit, and as the filling is 
inserted, one thread will be withdrawn from the surface of the 
fabric and will bend around the filling at the back. As the next 
pick is inserted, another thread will be withdrawn, the first one 





90 




TEXTILE DESIGN. 81 

returning to its original position. As the threads are not with- 
drawn in regular or consecutive order, the filling does not bend 
around the warp in a great degree, but remains straight, the warp 
only being drawn out of its course. Under this condition the 
filling threads cannot be made to lie close together, but are always 
separated from each other by at least the diameter of the warp 
thread ; therefore, in this class of fabric, we should always have 
a greater number of warp threads per inch than filling picks. 

If the fabric is to be durable, we must take care that the 
material which is present in least quantity, whether it be filling 
or warp, shall be of sufficient strength 
to compensate for the absence of 
quantity, otherwise the fabric will be 
able to bear strain in one direction 
only, whereas by proper attention to the 
strength of the material employed we 
may make it able to bear the requisite 
strain in both directions. If it is desired 
to produce on the fabric a smooth, 
unbroken surface with no visible pattern, pj ^22, 

the war^) threads may be placed so 

closely together that as one is withdrawn to bend around the fill- 
ing, those on each side of it will close over the vacancy and com- 
pletely hide the point where it has interwoven with the filling. 
• ■ In that case the number of warp threads should be increased 
in proportion to the number in the filling, and consequently the 
fabric will be capable of bearing an increased strain upon the 
warp, but a decreased strain in the direction of the filling. Ex- 
actly the same principle will apply to fabrics where a filling 
surface is desired ; the warp threads are then set such a distance 
apart as will permit of the filling threads passing readily between 
and bending around them. The filling threads are inserted as 
closely as their diameters will allow, and in some cases pass over 
and hide the point where the filling has bent around the warp; 
and again, in many cases, they are inserted so closely that the 
filling is compressed and loses its cylindrical form. In such 
fabrics the greatest strength is in the direction of the filling just in 
proportion to the quantity of material employed. 



M 



82 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES IN SATEEN WEAVES. 

(J.) Work out weaves from the following: 

w^^^A (^)^^^^A (^)^^A 
c*)^^A c^)^T^A («)^^A 



(7) 



3 3 1 

3 2 2 



/l (8) ^ ^ ^ /2 (9) ^ ^ ^ , / 
/ ^^32 2/ ^^32 2/ 



ci«^ ^^^A (">^^^A <^'^ 



3 2 2 

3 3 1 

3 2 2 






3 3 1 



2 '2 



(22) LA_ /_ 5 (23) ^ /2 (24) ^_^ /- 3 



2 4 



2 3 



(i?) Write the order of weaving, and move numbers for each 
of the following weaves 25 — 30, both warp way and filling way. 



«• •._• •• 

•_• •!• •• 

• _• •.••• 

• • • •• • _ 

» • «[¥ •_•._ 

• « • " I • m • 

• ±_9 **.* 

[^^_ • *.***_ 

_• •••• • 

•••:• •_• 

• • • • • • 



• •_• ••• 

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•••.• •_• 

• •^•i •_• • 

•_•. **** 

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_»m»± •_•_ 

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•[•|«|«| I |»| !•! |~ 



_ •_• ±_ •_•_••_• 

•_^ •_•_•_•• _^_ 

• •_•_•_• •_^_»._ 

_•_•_ •>^_ •_ •_j» • 

_• ±__±_*_*±_±_* 

±_*._*_± •_•._•._• 

•_^_«»_»_«_» •_ 

• ••••••• 



25 26 27 

(Exercise continued on next page.) . 



•S 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



83 









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28 29 . 30 

((7) Make plans with bases 31 — 33 and order of weaving 

4 2 4 11 

and with bases 34 — 38 and order of weaving 



2 2 



13 1- 



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35 



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36 



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37 38 

(Exercise continued on next page.) 



93 



84 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



(i>)Make two plans on each of the accompanying bases 39 — 41. 



• •_ 

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39 40 41 

(Uy Run out plans 42 — 45 to one complete pattern of each. 



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• • • o • • 



42 



43 



44 



m\»\ I I (•• •• 



45 



(i^) Give two bases on 13 threads and run out two plans on 
each base. 



( (r) Make plans as follows : 

(1) i_LJ_/3 — 1 

^ ^ 2 2 2/ 



(2) ^ '^ '^ /4 — 2 

^ ^ 2 2 2/ 



(3) i-J_J__/5 — 3 

2 2 2/ 



^^>^^A+« 



2 2 2 



(5) W" . /3-1 



^^>^^4A-^ 



(T)L_i_?__/5-8 



(8) ' ^ ^ I 

^ '' 2 12/ 



5 — 1 — 1 



(9) LAJ_/3 — 2 + 2 (10) ^ ^ ^ /4_3 + 2 
^ ^ 212/ ^ ^^ 212/ ^ 



94 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



85 



(^) Give order of weaving and move of the following plans 
(13) L_/o + + 3 (14) ^-3/0 + 3 



(17) l^J_J_^/5— 1 — 1 (18) ^ „^ ,^ . /5_1_1 



2 2 2 



3 2 1 



<^«^^^A-^-^ (^»)'-r^^A-^-^ 



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• • •±* • •. *._•• ••• 

•\m\*\ I l»l*l»l I !• I |«|»|«| I W\*\ kl I !• 



B 



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• | »| \»\»\ [»|>| I I Tj ••• •_•••_• 

••_••_•• _••• •_•••_• 

••_••_•• ••• •_•••_•_ 

• •_•• ••_ ••• •_•••_• 

• _••_•• • •_•••_• •••_ 

_••_••"'•• •_•••_• !!••• 

• • !•_••_ • •_•••_• •* 

• _•• ••_• •• •_•••_• • 

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|»|»| I I I [•[•I [•[•I I |»| [•[•[•I \m\ I I [•U|»|"T" 



C D 

(Exercise contiuueii on next page.) 



95 



86 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



(7) Make two plans on each of the accompanying bases 31 — 40. 



r.l I I I kl r 

• 

• 

•_!!_ 

_ • 

•_ 

• 

•I I I I I I I 



31 



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• 

• 



32 



33 



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34 



111! TTT I I I H 
• 

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J*ll II I I I II II 



I' II I I I I ITTTi 

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9 

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• 



35 



36 



I ICII I II II |»[ I II [ | 

•_ •_ 

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37 



38 



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. • • 

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•I I I I I I I I II I I •] I I IT" 



39 40 

(Exercise continued on next page.) 



96 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



87 



(e7) Run out plans 41 — 46 until complete. 



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42 



I I*! |»|»[»[»[« | »| |»| I I I ' 

•_*•••••_• 



43 






44 



45 



• _•_ 

•• 

• • 

• _• 
!•• 

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• •_• 
• 

• • 



46 



(^K) Give one complete repeat of plans 47 — 53 and write 
order of weaving and move number for each. 





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@ 


m 


m 


ffl 


s 


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87 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



SATEEN STRIPES. 

In designing fancy fabrics for the white cotton trade the 
designer is frequently compelled to depend almost entirely upon 
the weave to obtain different effects. When the warp and filling 
are both white, this becomes a necessity. There is another method, 
howevei", and it is one that is often useful, namely, the manner 
in which the warp is reeded. In some patterns it is necessary 
to have some parts of the warp reeded in greater numbers than 
in other sections, that is, in some parts of the reed each dent 
contains 2 threads, while in other sections the reed may contain 
3, 4, 5 or even 6 in one dent. Six is generally considered the 
highest number, but in some rare cases even 8 or 10 threads are 
put in the same dent. 

Nearly all the fancy white goods that are made have for 
the body or groundwork of the fabric the regular plain or 
cotton weave, 1 up and 1 down. The stripe in the warp 
will be either a twill, broken twill, or sateen weave, warp flush, 
and the overcheck will be a sateen weave, filling flush. The 
sateen weave is generally combined with other weaves to make 
stripes and cliecks. 

Stripes consist of bands or lines, varying in width and color, 
running lengthwise of the cloth, viz., in the direction of the warp. 
The distinctive character of this make of goods is its line-like 
composition. All patterns of this order are nothing more than a 
blend of lines of various shades and weaves. They are of varying 
widths and extend from one end of the fabric to the other. 
Athough this form of pattern is well adapted to trouserings, 
shirtings and some styles of dress and mantle cloths, it is not 
suitable for coatings and even suitings when extended beyond a 
very minute stripe of the hair line description. 

The variety of these stripes is very extensive, both as to 
shade and color, commencing with the single thread hair line, 
and increasing in size until a stripe or band several inclies wide is 
obtained . 

The prominence of the different weaves employed, the bands 
or lines of color, their distinctness, solidity, their intermittent 
character, and their subdued tone aspect, are all qualities depend- 
ing on the structure of the fabric and its weave composition. 



98 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 89 

The pattern in striped styles is principally a warp product 
and the filling in such cases only of secondary consideration. The 
filling is employed, first, to bind the warp threads together and 
thus form a wearable fabric ; second, to constitute an appropriate 
groundwork on which the warp colorings may be correctly exposed. 

Proper emphasis of the colors composing the stripes is ac- 
quired by employing a suitable shade of filling, and by adopting 
that system of crossing or interweaving which will, in addition 
to yielding the requisite strength and firmness of fabric, suffi- 
ciently interfere with the continuity of the fancy shades introduced 
into the warp. 

Some are mere lines, no wider than the diameter of the 
threads employed, while others are several inches wide. Two 
colors may be introduced to form stripes of different widths ; for 
example, black and a dark mix may be combined to give stripes 
of many descriptions. 

We could use 1 thread of black and 1 thread of dark mix, 
which would make a stripe of the hair-line description, using the 
plain weave for the intercrossing ; or 2 threads of black and 1 
thread of dark mix, using the 3-harness twill for the inter- 
weaving. Thus we might continue on these principles and form 
sets of stripes of variable widths or sizes. The character of these 
styles to a very great extent is governed by the class of texture in 
which they appear. Examples of this occur in the various 
fabrics produced by the loom. Take, for example, stripes for 
trouserings, which are generally small to medium size, softly and 
neatly toned in coloring. In dress goods, mantlings and ulster- 
ings are found much broader effects, more elaborate in arrange- 
ment, and which require much greater force of coloring. 

In cotton shirtings small, neat styles are considered the best, 
but in cotton dress goods there appears to be no definite limit, 
either as to the width of the stripe or to the radical plan of 
coloring. For aprons, children's dress goods and such fabrics as 
tickings and awnings, stripes are used to a considerable extent. 
To form a practical idea of what is meant by a sateen stripe the 
following particulars should be thoroughly understood. 

Sateen Tick Stripe. When ttie name " Sateen Tick " is 
used, the general impression is that of a line of goods or a fabric 



99 



90 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



which in some way resembles a sateen. But a sateen tick is in no 
way like a satin, being used for an entirely different purpose. 
These goods are made entirely of cotton, and are used for uphol- 
stery ; the name "Sateen Tick" being taken from the weave, 
which is a sateen weave. 

There is quite a demand for this fabric, but the manufacture 
of it is chiefly in the hands of a few lai'ge mills, which monop- 
olize the industry. In many mills in which this fabric has been 
attempted a 2-ply yarn has been used for the warp, and this 
has made the goods harsh in feeling, and unfit for this purpose. 
The only proper way to make them feel soft is to use combed 
cotton yarn for the warp and the same stock for the filling, but 
having the filling twisted harder than the warp. The best fabrics 
on the market have 98 threads to the inch of single 7's and about 
52 picks of single •14's. The weave which is used, and from 
which the fabric obtained its name, is the sateen weave, warp 
flush, Avhich throws the warp entirely on the face. It makes a 
smooth face, free from twill lines, with the points of intersection 
evenly distributed. The 5 -harness sateen is the simplest kind. 
As before stated (see page 37) these weaves are constructed by 
taking the number of harnesses to be used for the sateen, and 
dividing it into two parts, neither of which are equal, nor one a 
divisor of the other; still further, neither divisible by a third 
number. 

The stitcliing for the weave, or the interlacmg of the warp, 
is obtained in the following manner : 

The first intersection will be on warp thread No. 1 ; the 
next intersection will be either on the third or fourth warp thread, 
according to whether the weave is counted by twos or by threes. 
If counted by twos the intersections will be as follows : 1, 3, 5, 2, 4. 
Almost all of these goods are woven on this 
weave, but in some cases the 8-harness sateen 
shown in Fig. 121 is used. The intersections are 
as follows : 1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 3, 6. This is con- 
structed on the same principle as the 5-harness 
sateen, but there are fewer intersections of the 
warp; consequently this allows more picks and 
makes a heavier fabric. These sateens are 



• 

• 

• 

• 

_• 

•_ 

• 



8 H. Sateen. 



very desirable 



100 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 91 

goods, as they may be woven easier and faster on account of the 
weave. The Ime of colors should be as simple as possible, 
because the fewer the colors the less the expense. The following 
is a line of colors in use in one of the largest mills in the country: 
black, white, red, very light tan, medium tan, dark blue, brown 
and light brown. These colors, if made in light shades, can be 
combined in a great variety of effects and produce mnmnerable 
patterns. 

The following will give good results and splendid combina- 
tions, and will also give the size and style of the stri]3es. An 
attractive effect having a very broad stripe can be produced by 
120 threads of red, 10 white, 60 light tan, 4 dark blue, 10 
medium tan, 4 dark blue, 10 medium tan, 4 dark blue, 10 medium 
tan, 4 dark blue, 60 light tan and 10 white. 

This can be varied and will make another very effective 
style by using 120 threads of dark blue in place of red, the rest 
remaining the same. Another good coloring is made as follows: 
10 threads red, 10 dark blue, 88 red, 10 dark blue, 10 red, 50 
white, 6 dark blue, 10 dark tan, 6 dark blue, 10 dark tan, 6 dark 
blue, 10 dark tan, 6 dark blue, 50 white, 2 dark blue, 16 red, 2 
dark blue, 50 white. 

In all these dressings the color can be varied ; the number of 
threads may also be increased or decreased at pleasure. The 
principle effect desired is contrast of color, combined with har- 
mony. There is no limit in the range of design. 

COTTON SATEEN STRIPE. 

The yarn used for this class of fabric varies from 40's to 70's,. 
although a large proportion is between 50's and 60's. There are 
also large quantities of 2-ply, 4-ply and sometimes 6-ply yarn 
used in cotton cords and stripes. The filling for such goods will 
range from 60's to 90's. 

The texture of the fabric in the plain part, that is, the part 
between the sateen stripes, will vary from 60 threads X 60 picks 
to 96 threads x 80 picks. The width of the goods is generally 
from 27 to 28 inches, though goods made especially for aprons 
win run from 40 to 42 inches. 

For an illustration let us make a cloth 28 inches wide, having 



101 



92 TEXTILE DESIGN. 



for the design a sateen stripe, with plain stripe ground for 1 

inch; sateen or broken 6-harness twill, ^ inch; plain ground, ^ 

inch ; broken twill, i inch. Total width of stripe to be 1| inches. 

28 inches -^ 1.75 inches z=z 16 repeats or designs across the 

cloth. Suppose we make the body of the warp, or what we have 

already called the plain or ground work, 80 threads to the inch. 

Then we have : 

% incli broken twill 
X inch groundwork 
X incli broken twill 
1 inch groundwork 

It is to be divided into a reed with 40 dents to the inch, or 
as is usually understood, a 40's reed; 2 threads in one dent = 80 
threads per inch. When making a pattern with one part of the 
design larger than the other, divide the larger portion into two 
parts, so that the design will commence at one side of the cloth 
and will be equal to the design at the extremiC edge or other side 
of the cloth. Our typical design has one inch of plain or ground 
which we divide into two equal parts. 

The way to lay out this piece of cloth will be as follows : 

}4 inch plain 20 dents 2 threads in one dent = 40 threads 

X inch strijDe 10 dents 6 threads in one dent = 60 threads 

X inch plain 10 dents 2 threads in one dent = 20 threads 

X inch stripe 10 dents 6 threads in one dent = 60 threads 

)4 inch plain 20 dents 2 threads in one dent = 40 threads 

70 220" 

Thus it will be seen that one pattern occupies 70 dents, and 
as we have already decided that there are to be 16 repeats of the 
pattern, we shall require 16x70= 1,120 dents exclusive of sel- 
vedge. Add 10 dents on each side for selvedge, this making 
total of 1,140 dents. 

1,140 dents ^ 40 i= 28^ inches. 
The reed must be 28|- inches wide. 

Two hundred and twenty threads in "one pattern X 16 = 3,520 
threads. The selvedge is composed of 20 double threads, 2 in a 
dent on each side. 

Left selvedge 20 double threads = 40 

Body of warp = 3,520 

Right selvedge 20 double threads = 40 

Total number of threads = 3,600 



108 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



93 



Fig. 123 represents a good weave for a 6-harn ess broken twill. 
This weave is especially recommended for this purpose. 

The next thing to make is the drawing-in draft, or harness 
draft and chain. 

Also leave for selvedges 10 empty heddles 
on the right and left sides of the 4 front harnesses. ■ 

The first 40 threads on the 4 front 
harnesses, which are forming a plain weave ; [ 
the second section of threads which are drawn 
on the 6 back harnesses, and are weaving a 
6-harness broken twill ; the third section of 
the threads, which are drawn on the 4 front 
harnessed, the fourth section of threads, which are drawn on the 
6 back harnesses ; and the last section of 40 threads on the 4 
front harnesses, make one repeat of the pattern or 220 threads. 
This operation is repeated 16 times, and when finished will 



Fisr. 123. 



have completed the body of the warp, or 3,520 threads. Now 



10 



10 



Fig. 124. 



Fig. 125. 



draw in the double threads for the selvedges on each side of the 
warp. The foregoing is a systematic way of obtaining the lay- 
out of a design, chain, and harness draft; but in some mills the 
drawing-in or harness draft would be laid out as follows : 



10 double threads on 1. 2. 3. 4. 



1 40 



Repeat 

16 
times 



20 
60 
40 
220 X 16 



threads on 1. 2. 3. 4. 
threads on 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 
threads on 1. 2. 3. 4. 
threads on 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 
threads on 1. 2. 3. 4. 



10 double threads for 1. 2. 3. 4. 



for selvedges 

for plain weave 
for broken twill 
for plain weave 
for broken twill 
for plain weave 



for selvedges 



103 



94 TEXTILE DESIGK. 



There is another very important matter to which particular 

attention must be paid ; that is, the question of how many wires 

or heddles must be placed on each harness shaft, thus preventing 

any possibilit}^ of overcrowding the wires or heddles on any or all 

of the harnesses. Take our previous example for illustration. 

On the 1st harness 25 threads X 16 patterns = 400 heddles 

On the 2nd harness 25 threads X 16 patterns =^ 400 heddles 

On the 3rd harness 25 threads X 16 patterns = 400 heddles 

On the 4th harness 25 threads X 16 patterns = 400 heddles 

On the 5th harness 20 threads X 16 patterns = 320 heddles 

On the 6th harness 20 threads X 16 patterns = 320 heddles 

On the 7th harness 20 threads X 16 patterns = 320 heddles 

On the 8th harness 20 threads X 16 patterns = 320 heddles 

On the 9th harness 20 threads X 16 patterns = 320 heddles 

On the 10th harness 20 threads X 16 patterns = 320 heddles 

3,520 heddles 
Also on the 4 front harness 5 extra for selvedges 20 heddles 

Total 3,540 heddles 
In this cloth we will suppose there are 72 picks per inch. 
In weaving this class of fabric, there is often much trouble 
caused by filling kinks. The filling is apt to catch on the sateen 
stripe, and unless the shed is perfect and clear there will be trouble 
of this kind. Under these circumstances it is necessary that the 
harnesses are properly hung, and that they are making a clear, 
even, open shed. Almost all mills engaged in weaving this class 
of goods use a head motion known as the dobby. The Crompton, 
Knowles and Stafford being the most popular. As the goods are 
woven with one shuttle the looms can be run at a very high rate 
of speed, for which the dobby or head motion is especially adapted. 
These dobbies are made to fit any kind of loom, and it is quite 
common for mills to put them on their plain looms, to be used 
thereafter for fancy weaving. But as the loom can weave with 
but one shuttle, it is confined to striped goods. 

Overchecks. In making patterns for plaids, proceed in the 
same manner as with the stripes to find the number of warp 
threads. It is the filling check or overplaid that will give most 
of the trouble in these patterns. 

To get the stripe or overcheck in the fillmg of the same 
density as the broken twill or sateen stripe in the warp, the 
take-up motion must be prevented from working, so that the filling 



104 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



95 



threads may be beaten up closely, to correspond with the broken 
twill in the warp. To accomplish this a wire is attached to the 
pawl that pushes or pulls the ratchet gear, and is fastened at the 
other end to one of the levers that work the harnesses. Wherever 
the take-up motion should stop, a pin is inserted in the chain at 
the proper place. The pin, in lifting tlie lever, pulls the wire that 
is fastened to the pawl, thus hfting it up and thereby stopping^ 
the take-up motion. 




Fig. 126. 

The question now arises of how 
often the take-up motion should be 
stopped while weaving the check. 

We will again take our example : 
to make the filling compare with the 
warp, there will need be as many 
picks in | inch as there are in the 
corresponding stripes in the warp, 
which is 60. It will be found, how- 
ever, in practice, that 54 will be 
sufficient. Supposing there are 72 
picks per inch, in ^ of an inch there 
would be 18, but the overplaid calls 
for 54. The ratchet gear is taking 
up 1 tooth every 2 picks, thus 
moving 9 teeth for every i of an 
inch of cloth woven; therefore, to 
get 54 picks in that space, there 

must be 6 picks for every tooth taken up, so it * follows then that 
out of every 6 bars in the pattern chain, 4 of them will have 
to contain pins in order to stop the take-up motion. 

The best weave for the stripe or overplaid, when there are an 



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105 



96 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



even number of threads in a dent, is the 4-harness broken twill, 
or Crowfoot weave. In making the design for a filling stripe of 
this description, and in order to have the warp stripe pass 
smoothly over the filling check, the weave must be made double 
what it is in the plain part ; if we are using a 5 up and 1 down 
weave, it must be made to run exactly double, that is, 10 up and 
2 down, when it comes to the filling stripe. Fig. 126 will explain. 
There must be 2 extra harnesses allowed for selvedges on 
patterns of this nature, otherwise there will be a bad selvedge 
where the filling stripe is being woven. Fig. 127 shows the 
harness chain complete for weaving a plaid from the stripe pattern 
just explained. 

PLAIN AND IRREGULAR RIB WEAVES. 

After the plain, twill, and sateen weaves have been studied, 
the next class is the derivative weaves, or those which are de- 
signed by using one of the foregoing weaves as a basis. The 
simplest class of these weaves is the ribbed. This is formed by 
using the plain or cotton weave as a foundation. 

Fig. 128 is an enlarged 
diagram of a fabric woven on 
the simplest rib weave that can 
be constructed. It is made by 
raising 1 warp thread for 2 con- 
secutive picks, and lowering the 
same warp thread under the 
next 2 picks ; the second thread 
being exactly the reverse of the 
first. 
By a careful study of Fig. 128 and Weave 129, a clear idea 
of the designing of these weaves will be obtained. The warp 
thread No. 1 is raised when the pick A is inserted, and the same 
position of warp threads is obtained in the case of the second 
pick, B. When C and D are woven, the warp thread No. 1 passes 
under them, the warp thread No. 2 passes under A and B and 
over C and D, which is the reverse of the intersections on thread 
No. 1. 

It will be seen that this weave is nothing more than the 




Fig. 128. 



Fig. 129. 



106 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



97 



plain weave, with an additional pick made in the direction of the 
filling. This causes the warp to cover the filling. This effect is 
called a rib, and is made by the warp. These weaves are called 
warp-rib weaves, because the rib is formed by the warp, but the 
rib line runs across the piece or width of the fabric. In the fill- 
ing-effect weaves, the rib lines run in the direction of the warp, 
but are formed by the filling. The threads 3 and 4 are the 
duplicates of 1 and 2. This weave repeats on 2 harnesses and 
4 picks. Fig. 128 being the design for the enlarged section of 
the fabric. ' 

The warp-rib weaves do not have the extended use which the 
filling ribs do. These are also an enlargement on the plain weave 
basis, but instead of being in the direction of the filling, the rib is 
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Fiff. 131. 



Fig:. 132. 



Fig. 130 and Weave 131 illustrate 

Fig. 



in the direction of the warp 

the simplest filling-rib weaves that can be constructed 
130 is the enlarged section of the fabric, and Fig. 131 is the 
design for Fig. 130. The pick A is over the two threads 1 and 
2 and under the two threads 3 and 4 ; the second pick, B, is the 
reverse of A, and the third and fourth picks, C and D, are the 
duplicates of A and B. The weave repeats on 4 warp threads 
and 2 picks. In the fabrics woven on this principle, the face 
rib is formed by the filling, and it covers the warp almost en- 
tirely. On account of this characteristic, these weaves are used 
largely in the manufacture of woolen and cotton union fabrics, 
that is, a cotton warp with woolen filling; but because of the 
slippery character- of the cotton warp, and the filling crossing each 
bunch or set of threads in the same manner, it is found that in 
the fabric the filling will slip or pull on the warp and form open 
spaces. This defect can be remedied to some extent by using 
such a weave as is shown by Fig. 132. In this weave it will be 



107 



98 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



noticed that a warp thread is lowered on every rib or cord ; this 
additional intersection holds the filling and keeps it from slipping 
on the warp. 

From the plain rib weaves the 
fancy and irregular rib weaves are 
made. These consist of the com- 
bination of two or more rib weaves 
of various widths in one design. Fig. 
133 shows the design for a weave 
of this class, which repeats on 3 
threads and 2 picks. Fig. 134 is the 





Fig. 133. 



Fig. 134. 



same idea designed for a warp rib. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make designs for warp-rib weaves to repeat on 2 har- 
nesses and 6 picks, for 2 harnesses and 8 picks ; also for 2 
harnesses and 10 picks. 

2. Make designs for filling-rib weaves to repeat on 6 
threads and 2 picks ; also 8 threads and 2 picks ; also 10 threads 
and 2 picks. 

3. Make designs for irregular rib 
weaves of this character, consisting of 
the combining of those weaves where 
the filling crosses 2 threads and 3 
threads, 3 threads and 1 thread, 4 
thread's and 2 threads, and 4 threads 
and 1 thread. 

4. Make designs where the warp 
thread crosses the same number of picks 

as the warp threads in the above examples. 

5. Make a diagram of each weave and a cut section of the 
first and second picks of each design. 

WARP EFFECT, FIGURED RI3 WEAVES. 

The first step in making figured rib weaves is to break the rib 
line or to change it after a certain number of warp ends. The 
method of designing these weaves is shown in Fig. 135, where 
the rib line on the first 6 warp ends is the same, then by raising 
the intersection 1 pick, the rib line is broken from a straight 



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Fig. 135. 



108 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



99 



line across the fabric. On this break it also covers 6 ends, so 
that the weave repeats on 4 picks and warp ends. This weave 
can be varied considerably by using a different number of warp 
ends in the change of the rib line, such as using 12 ends for 
the first direction of rib line, and then a smaller number for the 
second direction. 

Fig. 136 is the combination of the 
4 up and 2 down rib weave, using 6 ends 
for each change of the rib line ; this makes 
a broad and a narrow rib line, and is a very 
good fancy effect. It repeats on 12 ends 
and 6 picks. By using various rib weaves 
and changing the arrangement of the num- 
ber of threads used for several widths, a 
great variety can be produced. 




Fig. 136. 



FILLING-EFFECT, FIGURED RIB WEAVES. 

These weaves are designed on the same principle as the warp- 
effect rib weaves, except that the rib line runs in the direction of 
the warp instead of the filling. Fig. 13T shows the narrow and 
wide rib weaves combined, the rib line running for 6 picks, then 

changing on the next 



6. This will produce 
an alternating wide 
and narrow rib effect. 
The filling effects, 
as in the warp effects, 
can be varied by using 
various widths of rib 
weaves and different 
numbers of picks for 
the various widths. 
The next class of figured rib weaves combines the warp and 
filling effects in one weave. This is usually done in the shape of 
block effects, using the warp or filling effect for the ground, and 
the opposite of what is used for the groundwork of the pattern 
for the figure. Fig. 188 is the combination of the 2 up and 2 
down, using the filling effect for 6 ends and 6 picks, and the 




Fig. 137. 



Fig. 138. 



109 



100 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



warp effect for 6 ends and 6 picks ; this repeats on 12 ends 

and 12 picks. 

Fig. 139 is an idea for a weave of this 
character, each square representing 8 ends and 
8 picks. Where W is marked, use warp-face 
and in those marked F filling-face rib weave. 



F 


F 


W 


F 


F 


F 


F 


W 


F 


W 


F 


F 


W 


F 


F 


F 



8 8 8 8 

Fig. 139. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make this weave (Fig. 139), which 
will require 32 ends and 32 picks ; also make 
two other designs of this same class. 

2. Make designs for three of the figured warp-effect rib and 
three of the figured filling-effect, marking number of ends used 
for each weave. Eight designs in all. 

OBLIQUE RIB WEAVES. 

These weaves are a combination of the warp and filling effect 
rib weaves, and are used principally in the manufacture of what 
are called bird's-eye effects. They 
produce a square pattern in the 
cloth, which fact will be readily 
observed from a careful study of 
the weaves. 

To design these weaves first 
mark off on the design paper the 
repeat of the weave ; that is, if 
it must be woven on 8 harnesses, 
mark a square containing 8 ends 
and 8 picks ; subdivide this square 
into eight parts, as shown in 
Fig. 140 ; number each triangle in rotation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 
To design an oblique rib weave, mark in each uneven numbered 
square the warp-effect rib weave (see Fig. 141), and in each even 
numbered square the filling-effect rib weave, which produces the 
completed oblique rib weave (Fig. 142). This procedure can be 
reversed ; that is, the filling-effect lib can be designed in the 
uneven numbered triangles, and the warp-effect rib in the even 
numbered triangles, which will produce the finished weave 
(Fig. 143). 




12 3 456 76 



Fiff. 140. 



110 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



101 



All weaves of this class are designed either commencing rib 
effects alternating with filling or the reverse. 

These weaves are also combined with plain rib weaves for 
producing checks, usually using the oblique rib weave as the 
groundwork of the check, and the plain rib weave as the over- 
plaid or check. A weave of this class is shown in Fig. 144, 
where the groundwork of check is the 8-harness oblique rib 



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Fig. 142. 



Fig. 143. 



weave designed by commencing with the filling-effect rib in first 
ti'iaiigle ; the 4-harness rib filling effect for the warp over- 
checking, and warp effect for filling over- 
checking-. 

These combination weaves are simple, 
the only difficulty being experienced where 
the warp and filling effects of overcheck- 
ing join. At this point care should be 
taken that the weaves come together, 
preserving as nearly as possible the effect 
of both. These weaves are principally 
used in the manufacture of piece dyed 
worsteds. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 




Fig. 144. 



1. Make designs for 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 harness weaves of 
this class, using warp-effect rib in first triangle ; also make 6, 8, 
10, 12, 14, 16 harness weaves, using-filling effect rib in first 
triangle. 

2. Design two weaves of this class, combining the 10 and 
12 harness oblique weave with warp and filling effect rib weave. 



m 



102 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



BASKET WEAVES. 



The common weaves of this class are simply an enlargement 
of the plain or cotton weaves, in that the intersections are 1 
end up and 1 end down, and 1 pick up and 1 pick down. ^ To 
enlarge on this requires that the number of ends and picks on 
the same intersection must be made larger. The plain weave 
consists of 1 end and 1 pick each way, and to enlarge on this 
arrangement the number of ends and picks must be increased. It 



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Fig. 145. 




Fig. 146. 



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Fig. 147. 



is obvious that the next change would be 2 ends and 2 picks 
each way. This produces the simplest basket weave that can 
be constructed, shown in Fig. 145, of which Fig. 146 is an en- 
larged section of a fabric woven on this weave. This basket is 
the 2 and 2. 

Fancy basket weaves are constructed from the plain or com- 
mon basket weaves. These are solely 
the combination of two or more weaves 
of the common basket, or a basket and 
the plain combined. 

Fig. 147 is an illustration of these 
weaves. There is combined the plain 
and the two basket to form a weave 
which repeats on 3 ends and 3 picks. 
Fig. 148 shows the combination of a 
more complicated weave of this class. 
It is the 1, 2 and 3 combined, and consists of three changes. It 
repeats on 12 ends and 12 picks. In designing these weaves always 
commence at the left-hand corner and run the weave across the 
paper to the upper right-hand square. Two repeats of the orig- 
inal weav^es are necessary before a complete repeat of the weave 




Fig. 148. 



119 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 103 

is secured. After designing tliese on paper, fill in the rest of the 
weave, always counting the changes the same both warp and fill- 
ing way. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make the designs for example 1, 3 and 3 ; example 2, 4 
and 4 ; example 3, 5 and 5. 

2. Combine the following in fancy basket weaves : example 
4, 2-4 ; example 5, 1-4-2 ; example 6, 2-3-1-2-1 ; example 7, 
l_l_2-2-3 ; example 8, 2-3-4. 

CORKSCREW AND DOUBLE-TWILL WEAVES. 

These weaves are chiefly used in the manufacture of worsted 
suitings and trouserings, and in some branches of silk manufac- 
ture. They are similar to oblique warp-effect rib weaves, in that 
they require a fine or close set, since the warp forms to a great 
extent the surface of both face and back of the cloth, the filling 
being merely embedded between alternate warp threads. 

We shall now describe the construction of a few of these 
weaves, a close study of which will readily demonstrate the end- 
less variety of new designs to be made in this manner. 

With reference to the theory of constructing this class of 
weave, the true corkscrew is made from the regular twill weaves 
on an uneven number of harnesses, by using the regular 45-de- 
gree twill for a chain, and drawing the threads through the har- 
nesses in the same order as the intersections would occur in any 
given sateen weave on that number of harnesses. 

In order to provide for the equal overlapping at the juncture 
of the corkscrew twill, the warp section of the 45-degree twill must 
use one point in excess of the filling section or sinkers, thus : 

3 4 5 

= 5 threads; =i 7 threads : = 9 threads 

2 3 4 

If the overlapping of floats at the juncture of the two twills 
is more than one point, the effect of this style of weave will be 
lost. This explains the reason why this method of drafting is 
impracticable on weaves of an even number of harnesses, as an 
even number cannot be divided into two unequal parts, one 
of which will exceed the other by one point only. The fewest 



113 



104 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



number of harnesses to make a corkscrew weave is the 5- 

3 
harness 45-degree twill; the 13-harness being the largest 

corkscrew weave in practical use. 

Fig. 149 is the 5-harness 45-degree twill. 

Operation : Divide the number of harnesses into two parts, 
one of which will exceed the other by one point or unit ; thus, 3 



■ 



Fig. 149. 





Fig. 150. 



Fiff. 151. 



and 2 equal 5 . The dra wing-in draft to be made on the same 
principle as a sateen weave, always commencing with the first- 
thread on first or front harness, using one of the numbers to count 
with as a move number, thus : first thread on first 
harness, second thread on fourth ; that is, first and 
move 3, — this move will place the third thread on 
the second harness ; second and move 3, — this 
move will place the fourth thread on the fifth har- 
ness ; fifth and move 3, — thu move will place the 
fifth thread on the third harness ; third and move 
Fiff 152 ^' — ^^^® move places the sixth thread on the first 

harness and determines one repeat of the weave. 
This draft shows a straight draw for 5 harnesses, consider- 







^ ^ 




\s!". s: 



Fia:. 153. 



Fig. 154. 



ing every other warp thread only, viz. : every uneven warp thread, 
X, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc., etc., calling in turn respectively for the first. 



114 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



105 



second, third, fourth and fifth harnesses ; the even warp number 2 
commences on tlie fourth harness; considering again every other 
warp thread only ; viz., every even warp thread, numbers 2, 4, 6 and 
so on, calling in turn respectively for harnesses numbers 4, 5, 1, 
2, 3. The draw or draft completed will read 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2, 
5, 3. A study of Figs. 150 and 151 will explain. Explanation 
in detail: 



1st 

2d 
3d 
.4th 
5tli 
6th 
7th 
8th 
9th 
10th 



thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 
thread 



on No. 
on No. 
on No. 
on No. 

on No. 
on No. 
on No. 
on No. 
on No. 
on No. 



1 harness, 

4 harness, 

2 harness, 

5 harness, 

3 harness, 

1 harness, 

4 harness, 

2 harness, 

5 harness, 

3 harness, 



count 
count 
count 
count 
count 
count 
count 
count 
count 
count 



off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 3 
off 8 



places 
places 
places 
places 
places 
places 
places 
places 
places 
places 



Fig. 151 shows the corkscrew weave carried to its full extent. 
It will be noticed that in the first half of 
the draft, the first or odd thread com- 
mences the draw, whereas in the second 
part of the draft it is the sixth thread or 
even number that commences the draw. 
The draft must be extended to double the 
original weave to make one full repeat. 

Fig. 152 is a 7-harness weave. Seven 
divided into two parts, one of which will 

exceed the other by one point only, 4 and 3 equal 7. 

degree twill. • 

Fig. 153 represents the harness draft, and Fig. 154 is the 
extended design or corkscrew twill ; 4 is the i:aove number. 

Fig. 155 is a 9-harness weave. Nine divided into two parts, 

one of which will exceed the other by one point only, 5 and 4 

5 
equal 9. 45-degree twill, with 5 for the move number. 

Fig. 166, harness draft. Fig. 157, extended design. 

Uneven balanced weaves will always produce more perfect 




115 



106 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



corkscrew weaves than the even-sided twills, since it is only pos- 
sible with the uneven-sided twills to balance the cut-off of the 
double twill. The direction of the twill will be reversed by 
using the lesser number. 







Fiff. 156. 



Fig. 167. 



Corkscrew weaves on an even number of harnesses. No matter 
what even-harness 45-degree twill is used for the foundation for 
an even-harness corkscrew weave, the junction of 
the two twills will be faulty. There is not the 
equal cut-off as produced with weaves having an 
uneven number of harnesses for repeat ; but some- 
times a corkscrew weave on an even number of 
harnesses is required, especially with fancy effects, 
in which corkscrew weaves are used in combina- 
tion Avith other weaves. For instance, a case may 
occur in which a corkscrew weave for an even repeat of harnesses 
is required to connect with a 6-harness twill. Fig. 158 is the 

3 

45-degree twill. 




Ti<r. 158. 





Fig. 159. 



Fig. 160. 



Fig. 159, drawing-in draft. Fig. 160, extended design. 



n? 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



107 



It will be noticed that with this weave there is not the perfect 
junction when the two sections meet, as there is in the 5-harness 
weave, and this is always the case with an even-sided 45-degree 
twill. 






Fig. 161. 



Fig. 162. 



Fiff. 163. 



There is no true corkscrew weave on an even number of 
threads less than 12; and this weave is composed of two 6-har- 

4 



ness twills, viz. 



(Fig. 161) and 



(Fig. 162) twills. To 



3 ^ ° ' ' 2 

obtain the even cut-off of the two twills, commence with the first 



thread of the 



twill and the fourth thread of the 



2 



twill, 





Fig. 164. 



Fig- 165. 



then take the threads alternately from each twill; thus, 1, 4, 2, 5, 
3, 5, 4, 1; 5, 2, 6, 3 (Fig. 163) ; this weave repeats on 12 threads 
and 6 picks, having a balanced cut-off between the double twills, 
however, showing two slightly different sizes of twill effects, — 
that is, a 4-float alternating with a 3-float. 

Again, such corkscrew weaves do not permit of a reduction 
of harnesses, which is a serious defect. The above example 
cannot be reduced to less than 12, whereas the uneven-number 
corkscrew weave can be reduced to the number of the original 45- 
degree twill. 



ii7 



108 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



When corkscrew weaves are made from weaves exceeding 9 
threads and picks, the interlacing of warp and filling is very 
loose, so that the fabric is not merchantable, as the warp will slip 
on the filling. To remedy this without changing the face of the 
fabric, the warp floats upon the back must be reduced by adding 
one or more points of interlacing. 

Take an 11-harness 45-degree -. twill. To change this 

5 

twill so that it will bind firmly, the five sinkers which go to the 
back must be made to interlace ; this changes the 45-degree 



twill to interlace 



6 



1 



= 11 harness. 



Figs. 164 and 165 illustrate the 7-harness weave constructed 
the wrong way. Compare these Figs., 164 and 165 with 153 and 
154. 



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Fig. 26, 



u§ 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 

PART III. 



CLOTHS BACKED WITH FILLING. 

This branch of weaving has not had a very extensive use in 
the cotton trade, but in the woolen and worsted industries it has a 
very wide application.' 

The term, single cloth, is generally applied to a fabric that is 
interwoven with one set of threads for the warp and one set of 
picks for the filling. This may be a cloth in which the weave 
will allow the warp and filling to be equally divided between the 
face and under surface of the fabric, or such cloths as sateens and 
doeskins where the warp or filling predominates on the face. 

A fabric which has an extra layer of threads woven on the 
under surface or back of the cloth, and which is distinct from the 
face, is called a backed cloth. These extra threads may be in 
the direction of the warp, or they may be in the direction of the 
filling. 

Backed fabrics of this description are not what is understood 
as double cloths. There is as much difference between a backed 
cloth and a true double cloth as there is between a single cloth 
and a cloth backed with either warp or filling. 

To retain the fine surface and appearance of a light-weight 
pattern on the face of a fabric, and at the same time to increase 
the weight or bulk of the fabric, a lining or back must be inter- 
woven on the under surface of the cloth. This back can be 
interwoven either in the direction of' the filling or warp. 

Double cloths are composed of two distinct sets of threads, 
both in the warp and filling. They are two separate cloths, inter- 
woven at various intervals to form one compact fabric. 

Sometimes one fabric is superior to the other in quality ; in 
such cases the fine fabric is called the face and the inferior fabric 
is called the back ; or it may be that the two cloths are of the 



121 



no 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



same quality and material, but of different colors, one cloth form- 
ing the outer garment, while the other cloth forms the lining. 
The face of one cloth may be of a very fine surface and of one 
color; the lining of such a cloth can be composed of a fancy 
weave, and the pattern and coloring of several bright and radical 
colors. 

There are three methods of backing a fabric : 
First, by having one warp, with two fillings ; one filling for 
face and the other for back. 







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Fig. 166. 

Second, by having one filling and two sets of warp threads ; 
one set for the face, the other set for back. 

Third, by having two distinct sets of warp and filling, inter- 
woven so as to make two different fabrics, bound together at 
certain intervals. 

Those backed with filling are usually low or medium grades 
of cloth. This system is probably the best for such fabrics, as it 
allows the warp threads to be set close together, and also allows 
the manufacturer to use heavier yarn in the filling at the back of 
the cloth. But this system of backing does not allow the back to 
assimilate with the face, as all the yarn at the back is in the 
direction of the filling. Cloths backed in the direction of the 
warp can be made to correspond with the face of the fabric, espe- 
cially in stripe effects. Some of the finest of worsted cloths 
backed on this system s?<re as neatly colored on the back as on the 
face of the fabric. 



122 



TEXTILE DESIGN. Ill 

Fabrics backed with two sets of filling threads and one set of 
warp threads may be divided into two classes : first, those with 
one pick of face and one pick of back ; second, with two picks of 
face and one pick of back. 

In designing a fabric on any one of these systems it is very 
essential that the point or position where the face warp inter- 
weaves with a backing pick, or vice versa, should be very care- 
fully placed. 

Fig. 166. A is the face of the cloth, B is the back, C repi-e- 
sents the two cloths combined. Take note of every detail. A is 
a filling flush, 4-harhess twill, while the back is a warp twill on 4 
harness. Study where these two weaves can be joined together, 
so that the point of intersection or binding will not show on 
the face. 

When binding a flush weave, the point of intersection should 
always be at the place where the thread has just been down in 
one pick and will be down at the next pick (see Fig. 166, C). 
It will be noticed that the face filling floats over three warp 
threads, and in the center of these at the backing pick is where 
the two weaves are amalgamated. This, the point of intersection, 
is covered by the filling on each side of the back pick, so that 
when the cloth is completed the warp is entirely covered, and the 
two surfaces presented, which may be of two indifferent colors, 
show only the filling. In this make of cloth the backing filling 
must not be much heavier than the face yarn. Otherwise the face 
yarn cannot cover the intersecting or binding points of the back- 
ing pick. 

In order to have an even face on cloths backed with filling it 
is necessary to have the same number of picks on the face as on 
the back; that is, if in a given sample of single cloth there are 30 
picks per inch, the backed cloth would require 60 picks per inch, 
as, for instance, a cloth composed of the 4-harness cassimere twill 
for face weave, and the 4-harness crow weave for back. 

Fig. 167 shows a most satisfactory binding for coarse and 
medium set goods. It will be noticed that the backing pick floats 
under three warp threads and interweaves at the fourth thread. 
Notice also the point of intersection or tie. The first pick of 
faco, 3d and 4th thread down. The first pick of back, 4th thread 



123 



112 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



down or stitch. The 2d pick of face, 4th and 5th threads down. 

Thus, the first backing pick in Fig. 167, C, takes down the 

fourth thread, which has been depressed by the first face pick and 









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Fig. 167. 



Fig. 168. 



also followed by being depressed at the second face pick. Thus 
the flushing on each side of the back pick by the first and second 
face picks conceals the stitching point or binding. 

Fig. 168 represents a cloth composed of the same two weaves 
as those at Fig. 167, but the point which unites the back to the 



M 


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Fig. 169. 



face is not in a position where it can be covered on both sides by 
a filling flush. 

Fig. 169 is the very best way in which a filling back can be 
woven to a cassimere twill weave. The backing is an 8-harness 
sateen weave. It will be observed again here that the points of 
intersection on the face are depressed previous to, and after the 
intersection of, the backing pick. The 8-harness sateen back pro- 
duces a soft and full texture. 



194 



TEXTILE BESIGJT. 



113 



Backed cloths in the proportion of two picks of face and one 
pick of back. There is one important fact with this system ; that 
is, that the backing pick cannot be bound as satisfactorily as in 
the one-and-one system. Fig. 170 shows that only every alter- 
nate thread is interwoven with the back. To have a thoroughly 
even balanced cloth, every thread should have the same amount of 
binding, otherwise the thread that has the greater number of inter- 
lacings must necessarily "take up" the quickest in weaving; 
therefore, in making an uneven fabric, to have each thread take 
up equally, the warp should be dressed on two beams. 

There are cloths woven on this principle which have only 
one beam, but the fabric i;: not satisfactory, 
especially when the backing filling is much 
heavier than the face fillingo After a certain 
length of cloth has been woven, the threads with 
which the backing has been interlaced most 
frequently will work tight and cause streaky 
places to appear in the cloth. 

It must be thoroughly understood that 
whenever the structure of the design will admit 
of the arrangement of backing ties, these should 
always be preceded and followed by flushes of 
face filling. This is the secret of good binding. 

In making figured designs, the same prin- 
ciples will apply. Fig. 1 71 is a checker-board 
pattern, the weave of which cuts at every eight 
threads and pick. Therefore, as the design 
stands, two face picks then one of back, it would be impossible to 
arrange it in such a way as to have the filling flush on each side 
of the binding point if the first and sixth picks were not coupled 
together. 

Fig. 172 shows the wrong way, and Fig. 173 illustrates the 
correct method to arrange such weaves. 

Fig. 174 represents a figure warp-surface weave. It is a de- 
sign which illustrates the irregular system of binding ; this figure 
is bound at two points on the filling pick and only one on the warp 
thread. 

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Fig. 170. 



125 



114 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



sale, and the designing principles of which are very similar to 
those just referred to ; cotton warp, worsted or woolen face, 
woolen back. The weave is generally a filling flush, as repre- 
sented in Fig. 175. The chief 
object in this class of work is to 
hide the cotton warp, so that the 
face represents a perfect and 
smooth worsted o r woolen sur- 
face. As the weave is made of 
long filling flushes, it is not a very 
difficult matter to find a suitable 
place to join the back and face to 
the cotton warp. 

Fig. 176 represents a class of 
goods which is made in direct opposition to the previous example. 
The cloth is made from worsted warp. 



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Cotton filling and woolen back. These designs are more 
difficult to bind than the preceding examples, as there are no 
filling flushes. The binding is done with the warp threads, on 
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warp thread, the thread previous to the binding and the thread 
after the binding must be elevated, so that the point of interlacing 
is between two warp flushes. This character of fabric must have 
the warp threads set compactly in the loom. 



126 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



115 



CLOTHS BACKED WITH WARP. 

This type of fabric can be backed by two methods : by the 
one-and-one principle and also by the two-and-one system. The 
example Fig. 177 illustrates a cloth backed with filling and 
requiring only five harnesses to weave the 
design, but the cloth when backed with warp 
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erally requires twice the number of harnesses 
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twill and the eight-harness sateen for the 
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plete the full draft. Four harnesses for 
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The arrangement upon paper for the design 
is exactly the reverse of the fabric backed 
with filling. 

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illustrates a fabric backed with warp. On careful examination it 



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Fig. 176. 



will be found that the risers and sinkers on each design are nearly 
the same ; therefore the explanations that have been given for tlie 
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127 



116 



TE»XTILE DESIGN. 



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Fig. 178. 



one advantage to be gained by using an extra warp ; on each side 
of the fabric an entirely different design can be made, and as 
it takes extra harnesses to weave a warp back, the designer can 
utilize them to vary the figure. There is not much diversity 
applied to the under surface. This is usually of a sateen char- 
acter, but the face weaves have every variety of design. The 
point of tie is as important in this type of cloth as in the previous 
one ; the binding should fall in such positions as have face warp 
threads elevated on both sides, exactly as flushes of face-filling 
are necessary to effect the successful binding when backing with 

filling. Flushes of face 
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cover the ties when back- 
ing with warp as are filling 
flushes when backing with 
filling. The order of lay- 
ing out this class of fabric 
is on the one-and-one prin- 
ciple. To arrange the threads on the two-and-one system, would 
necessitate the use of a heavier yarn for the back, and even then 
would produce a rather open texture on the under-surface. The 
yarns used for warp backs are, as a rule, about the same size of 
thickness as those used for the face fabric ; the yarn is set close 
in the reed, and the warp contains a large number of threads per 
inch in proportion to their counts or sizes. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Back plans 1 and 2 with weft 3 picks face to 2 picks 
back ; plans 3, 4 and 5, 2 picks face to 2 picks back. 

2. Back plans 6 and 7 with weft, 3 picks face to 1 pick 
back. 

3. Point out any defect in plans 8 and 9 and give con- 
nected plans. 

4. Plans 10 and 11 show two methods of backing the same 
weave with warp 2 and 1. Which do you consider the better of 
the two and why? 

5. Back plan 12 with warp, 2 ends face to 1 end back 
so that there may be one pick only in each shed. 



128 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



117 



6. Would the face weave in plan 13 be affected in any- 
way by the stitching of the backing weft? 



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Give the reason for your answer and make a plan of this 
weave stitched correctly. 



139 



18 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Back with warp 1 face to 1 back, plans 1-6, stitching 
firmly. 

2. Back with weft 1 face to 1 back, plans 7-12, stitching 
once in the repeat. 

3. Back with warp 1 face and 1 back, plans 13—18, stitch- 
ing so that the back will be like the face. 

4. Back with weft 1 face to 1 back, plans 19-24, stitching 
so that the back will be like the face. 



le 

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20 



l¥> 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



119 



■ ■■■ 

■■■■ 

■ ■■■ 

iiilli 

■ ■ ■■ 



15 



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16 



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17 



l-lillL* 



18 



21 



22 



23 



24 



6. Back plan A with warp, 2 ends face to 1 end back, and 
give peg plan to weave it with draft B. 

6. Back plans C D and E with warp, 3 ends face to 2 ends 
back. 

7. Back plan F with warp, 2 ends face to 1 end back, so 
that there may be one pick only in each shed. 

8. Give draft and peg plan to weave design G with a waip 
back, 1 end of face to 1 end of back. 





8TIME5 








4 TIMES 


1 


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I3X 



120 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



'8 TIMES 


4T1MES 


~\ — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 — Mil — 1 1 1 


■ 




■ 




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1 



































































































5 TIMES 



132 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



121 



I \U \ iM l !■_■ 

!_■■ ■1_1_ 

■_■ ■_■■ ■ 

ZliiZilZiZii 
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■■ BB ■~rB 



_1_1 1 I 

■l_l_ll_l_li 

■ ■ 1_ 

■_11_1_1111_ 

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B B BBBB a~m 

a ■ B B 



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J TIMES 



— 


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a 


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■ 








B 


a 


a 


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a 


B 










a 


a 


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a 










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a 


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a 






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m 


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a 


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■ 






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■ 






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a 




a 


a 






a 


a 


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a 


a 








a 


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5 TIMES 



H 



9. Back plan H with warp end and end and give peg plan 
to weave your design with draft J. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 



1. Back plans 1-6 with warp 2 face to 1 back, stitching 
each backing end once in a repeat of the face weave. 

2. Back plans 7-12 with warp 2 face to 1 back, stitching 
twice in a repeat. 



183 



122 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



3. Back plans 13-18 with weft 2 face to 1 back, stitching 
twice in a repeat. 

4. Back plans 19-24 with warp end and end. 

5. Back plans 25-30 with warp end and end, stitching so 
that the back will be like the face. 

6. Back plans 31-33 with weft, 1 face to 1 back. 



, ■_■■_■ 

i_il_i 

■■_■ i_ 

. ■ ■ ■■ 



■■ ■■■! 

■■!! Bg 

_■■ 111! 

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184 



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33 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

PAGE 125. 

1. Put a warp back on plans 1-36, binding with a firm 
stitch. 1 end face to 1 end back. 

2. As No. 1, but 2 face to 1 back. 

3. Put a weft back on plans 1-36, binding Avith a loose 
stitch. 1 pick face to 1 pick back. 

4. As No. 3, but 2 picks face to 1 pick back. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

PAGE 126. 

1. Back plans 1—5 with warp, end and end, and with weft 
2 picks face to 1 pick back. 

2. Back plans 6 and 7 with -warp end and end, stitching 
firmly, and give draft and peg plan for your Tinswer. 

3. Back plans 8 and 9 with warp end and end, stitching 
loosely, and give draft and peg plan for your answer. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

PAGE 127. 

1. Complete design 1, of which 8 picks are given, and 
back with weft 2 face to 1 back. 

2. Back plan 2 with warp, 2 face to 1 back, and give draft 
and peg plan. 

3. Back plan 3 with warp, 2 face to 1 back. 

4. . Give draft and peg plan to weave design 4 with a warp 
back. 1 end of face to 1 end of back. 



186 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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140 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 129 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE 

PAGE 128. 

1. Make a design for a single cloth to weave on one beam 
and appear like plans a, b, c and d, in the same set. 

2. Make a design with single weave to imitate the warp- 
backed design, e. 

3. Make designs with single weaves to imitate designs f and 
g, then back your designs with weft 2 picks face to 1 pick back, 
so as to hide the backing weft as much as possible. 

4. Back designs h and k with warp, 2 face to 1 back, then 
make single clotii designs to imitate them, giving suitable setting 
and counts of yarn for each. 

5. Back design 1 with warp, 2 face to 1 back, then make a 
single cloth design to imitate your backed design and to weave on 
30 shafts or less. 

6. Make designs for backed cloths to give the nearest effect 
to plans m and n. 

DOUBLE CLOTH. 

The next step is to make two separate and distinct fabrics 
employing two warps and two fillings. Cloths of this kind may 
be made with either both sides alike, or totally different ; that is, 
each of the separate cloths may be of the same pattern and made 
from the same yarns and t^e same quantity of yarn in each, or 
one cloth maybe much finer than the other, and of totally different 
pattern. 

Double cloths are merely two separate and distinct single 
fabrics woven on the same loom at the same time, but during the 
weaving process, so bound together as to appear like one fabric. The 
two fabrics may be identical in appearance and make-up, or one 
may be a coarse fabric and the other a fine one with the weaves 
and color arrangement differing radically without interfering with 
each other. Designs for such fabrics are made on design paper 
just the same as for single cloths, but the threads and picks on the 
design paper are divided into two sets, one for face threads and 
picks, and the other for back threads and picks. A good practice 
to adopt for distinguishing one set from the other is to shade the 
threads and picks to be used for the back cloth, in their proper 
arrangement, with a light wash of color or by fine lines. Different 



141 



130 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



proportions of face and back may be used, as one thread of face to 
one of back, two threads of face to one of back, two threads of 
face to two threads of back, three threads of face to one of back, 
or any other arrangement which may suit any particular design. 
Whatever the system adopted, it is customary to start the design 
with one thread of face. In the case of two of face and one of 
back arrangement, the order would be one face, one back and one 
face, repeated to the full extent of the design. 

Suppose, for instance, that it is required to make a double 
cloth, each fabric to be a simple four-harness cassimere twill, as 
shown in Fig. 179. The warp threads would follow in the liar- 
nesses alternately, one of face iind one of back, and the filling 
threads would appear in the same manner. Seeing that alternate 







Fig. 179. 



Fig. 180. 



Fig. 181. 



threads on this paper represent two different cloths, the student 
should run a faint wash of color, or shade with fine lines, over one 
of the sets of threads, so that when putting the design on paper 
there will be little liability to confusion (see Fig. 180). Now pro- 
ceed to put the face weave upon one of the systems of threads, as 
shown by squares in Fig. 181 ; then put the back weave on the other 
system of threads, as shown in P'ig. 182 by the oblique crosses, 
remembering all the time that the shading put upon one set of 
threads possesses no significance but to guide him. If divested of 
the shaded lines and color, the weave will now have the appearance 
of 'a simple eight-harness twill, as shown in Fig. 183, and if woven 
as given here would produce a simple twill and not a double cloth. 
Then something more must be done. When the face filling is 
being put in, all the back warp must be left down for the shuttle 
to pass over, and when the back filling is put in, the face warp 
threads must be lifted for the shuttle to pass under. This is quite 
easy of accomplishment. Simply add to Fig. 182 the marks which 



142 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



131 



will raise the face warp when the back pick is gomg in, as shown 
in Fig. 184 by the circular marks. 

One thing must be made perfectly clear at this point: the 
crosses or marks cannot be subject to any variation; they must be 
put on the back pick and upon every face thread. There will bi 
some apparent interference with this when binding or stitching the 
two cloths together, but in the meantime the lule must be held 
to be absolute.. Now suppose the matter is carried a step further, 
and the twill is to be used for the face cloth only and the back bi 
made plain, as in Fig. 185. This arrangement of design is quite 
simple and easy. Each weave is put on paper upon its own 
threads only, and then the marks are inserted to cause' each filling 
to interweave with its own warp only. 



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Fig. 182. 



Fio-. 183. 



Fig. 184. 



Attention must be directed to the probabilities in dealing with 
such a design as this. Here the threads of the two cloths are 
alternate, but tlieir weaves are different. It requires little inge- 
nuity to point out, and but little knowledge on the part of the 
student to understand, that if one cloth be woven twill and the 
other plain, and the yarns of the two are the same, one cloth must 
be much finer than the other. So that if any fabric is woven to 
this design and each cloth is intended to be equal in structure, as 
regards the relationship of yarn to weave, then that of the twilled 
cloth must be thicker in proportion than the plain cloth, and that 
proportion will be governed by the order of intersection. It is not 
often that this is done. Generally, in cloths of this kind, the two 
are of the same weave and quality, and consequently there is little 
trouble on that account. They may, of course, be of any pattern, 
such as that in Fig. 186, which consists of two six-harness twills,. 
or they may be of fancy weaves. 

(renerally speaking, this kind of double cloth is made when i^ 

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132 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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Fig;. 185. 



is desired to have both sides of the fabric of the same texture, but 
perhaps of different colors. Tliey are seldom made use of except 
in simple patterns, such as twills of the simplest kinds. Fancy 
designs, so far as the interweaving is concerned, 
are seldom used, the variety of patterns desired 
being generally produced in colors, which may 
be in stripes, checks or over-plaids. 

Attention must now be directed to double 
cloths in which fancy designs and weaves are 
required, the backing, as in most double-filling 
fabrics, being for the purpose of giving bulk and weight to the 
fabric. The conditions of arrangement are somewhat similar to 
those of cloth backed with filling, but there are two warps, and of 
course both have to be taken into account. Take, for example, 
the pattern given in Fig. 187, which consists of the four-harness 
cassimere twill for face and the two-harness plain cotton weave 
for back; there are two threads of face to one thread of back, the 
face weave being shown in Fig. 188 and the back weave in Fig. 
189. As will be noticed, the same practice 
is followed out as in the one-and-one system. 
The face weave is first put upon its own series 
of threads, and then the back weave is dealt 
with in like manner ; when both weaves are 
completed the rising marks are put on the 
back pick and upon the face threads, to cause 
a separation of the two cloths. 

Now, to carry this out to a greater length, make a six-harness 
twill face and a plain back, as shown in Fig. 190, with face weave 
in Fig. 191. In this case, if the pattern is only carried out once, 
there would be but three threads of backing, and as a plain cloth 
is not complete upon three threads, the whole must be carried/out 
to double the length, so that twelve threads of face and six of 
back must be employed. In such a case as Fig. 192, there would 
be no necessity for a repeat of the weave ; as the face pattern in 
Fig. 193 occupies eight threads, four threads would be required 
for back, and consequently the whole would be complete on 
twelve threads. 

It will be well to keep the practical application and the 



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Fig. 186. 



144 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



133 



arrangement side by side. * For instance, the question of draft- 
ing will come forward, because in many cases the face pattern will 
be a very elaborate one and the back may be perfectly plain, or a 
simple twill, and consequently does not require many harnesses to 



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Fig. 187. 



Fig. 188. 



Fig. 189. 



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weave it. In the design, Fig. 187, there would be no reduction, 
because the face weave occupying four threads and the back 
weave two threads, there would of necessity be six harnesses 
required, but the matter of arranging the harnesses must be con- 
sidered; that is, the arrangement 
of the draft must have particular 
attention, not only so as to know 
how the threads will be drawn 
through the harnesses, but also to 
determine the actual positions of 
the face threads and the back 
threads. Draw the face threads 
on the four front harnesses and the 
back on the two back harnesses, as 
in the draw in Fig. 194 and chain 
in Fig. 195; then reduce Fig. 190 
to the smallest possible ' number of harnesses, as in the draw in 
Fig. 196 and chain in Fig. 197 ; next reduce Fig. 192 to its 
lowest number of harnesses, as in the draw at Fig. 198 and chain 
in Fig. 199. 

Binding. So far, the designs give two entirely 
separate fabrics, and to complete the double fabric 
it is necessary to bind the two together. To accom- 
plish this binding, which is also termed stitching, 
tacking, etc., either one of two systems may be 
adopted. The two cloths may be bound together by lifting a back 
thread over a face pick at certain intervals, or by sinking a face 
thread under a back pick at certain intervals, one system being 



Fig. 190. 



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Fig. 191. 



145 



134 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



exactly the reverse of the other. Several considerations must be 
taken into account at this time, however, for if these binding 
points are selected indisciiminately a faulty piece of cloth is sure 
to result.- 

To bind correctly by lifting a back thread over a face pick, it 
should be lifted between two risers of face and either between two 
risers or next to a riser of back on the back thread. It is usually 
possible to lift between two back risers, but when a plain weave 
is used for the back, it is lifted next to a riser as the thread is 
not lifted over two consecutive picks. If, when binding in this 
manner, the back thread is lifted over a face pick at a point where 



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Fig. 192. 



Fig. 193. 



Fig. 194. 



Fig. 195. 



a sinker of face weave would come on either or both sides, the 
thread lifted would float over the face filling which is on the sur- 
face at this point and consequently the back warp thread would 
be brought to the face at this point, and if, as is often the case, 
the two cloths were of different color, the result would be a 
plainly discernible imperfection. 

By lifting the back warp thread between two face threads 
which are lifted, the two face threads come into close contact and 
cover the back thread completely. It is necessary to lift the back 
thread between two risers or next to a riser, because, if the back 
thread were weaving on the under surface of the back cloth and 
carried directly through to the face of the cloth, it would carry 
the face pick through to the back in such a manner as to make it 
show on the back, causing a similar imperfection on the back to 
that which was caused on the face. The second system of binding 
being just the reverse of the first, the point selected for the bind- 
ing should be just the reverse in every particular for similar 
reasong to those just given for .the first system. 



146 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



135 



The binding points in a design are generally arranged in 
some definite order, such as a twill or sateen, so as to distribute 
them evenly throughout the cloth, but this order must suit the 
other requirements named. Taking now the design in Fig. 184, 
which requires only the binding to complete it : suppose it is to 
be bound by the first system, the binding points to be distributed 



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Fig. 196. 



Fig. 197. 



in the order of a 1 four-harness twill. By the rule, the first point 
must come where a face pick crosses a back thread between two 
risers of face and between two risers or next to a riser of back. 
The only point on the first face pick answering these require- 
ments is where the first face pick crosses the first back thread, as 
indicated by the diamond-shaped mark in Fig. 200. Letting this 
mark indicate a riser, it shows the back thread lifted over a face pick, 
thus binding together the two cloths. Following out the binding 
points in the order as decided upon, the next point will come where 



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Fig. 198. 



Fig. 199. 



the second pick crosses the second back thread, this point com- 
ing in consecutive order, and answering all the requirements. By 
indicating all the binding points in their order as the fir:,t have 
been indicated, the design will appear as in Fig. 200 ; and if a fab- 
ric were woven with this design, it would be a double cloth with 
cassimere twill face and back, and bound together by interweav- 
ing the face-filling with the back warp in the order of the 1 twill. 
This binding would be very close m^ firm, and iu most ca^es it is 



147 



136 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



desirable that the binding should be distributed at greater inter- 
vals, as further examples will show. Fig. 201 is a cut section of 
the first two picks of Fig. 184, and Fig. 202 is a cut section 
of the fust two picks of Fig. 200, showing the binding, and Fig. 
203 is a diagram of the complete weave. 

For a further illustration of binding, suppose a cloth is de- 
sired with the same face and back weaves as were used in the 
previous example ; but this fabric is to be bound by the second 
system, with the binding points arranged in the order of an eight- 
harness sateen. As the binding is to be done with the face 
threads, and eight threads are lequired for the face, with the 
design arranged in the proportion of one thread of face to one of 
back, there would necessarily be eight threads required for back, 
giving sixteen threads and picks required for a full repeat of the 
design. 




Fiff. 200. 




Rule. — To find the dimensions of a ply or multiple fabric, 
find the least common multiple of the number of threads required 
for each of the single weaves to be employed, including the bind- 
ing motive, and multiply by the number of threads in one repeat 
of the ply dressing; i. e., if the cloth is arranged one of face and 
one of back and one of face, multiply by three, etc. A double 
cloth arranged in the proportion of one thread of face to one of 
back is called a one-and-one double cloth, or a double cloth 
arranged on the one-and-one system ; and a double cloth arranged 
in the proportion of two threads of face to one of back is called a 
two-and-one double cloth, or a double cloth arranged on the two- 
and-one system. 

Having found sixteen threads by sixteen picks to be the 
dimensions of the design given, shade off the design paper and 
place upon it the face and back weaves and the face lifters on the 



148 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



137 



back picks, each of the two weaves bemg carried out twice in 
each direction, as in Fig. 204. To select the first binding point, 
the requirements are to sink a face thread under a back pick 
between two sinkers on the back pick and between two sinkers or 
next to a sinker on tbe face thread. On the first back pick two 
such points may be found, the first on the fourth face thread and 
the second on the eighth face thread, both of which are equally 
good. Taking the point where the first back pick crosses the face 
thread as the first binding point, the face thread is found to be 
lifted by the system of lifting all of the face threads on the back 
picks ; in this case the thread must not be lifted, but must be 






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Fig. 203. 



Fig. 204. 



sunk under the back pick to effect the binding. This being the 
case, the mark indicating a lifter must be removed, and the space 
left vacant showing the thread to be sunk, but for convenience 
in showing the bindmg arrangement, the point is indicated by a 
circle, as in the design. 

Now as an eight-harness sateen is to be used for a binding 
motive, and as either five or three may be used as move number 
to produce an eight-harness sateen, it must be decided which num- 
ber will give the proper arrangement to suit the other require- 
ments. Using three as a move number, and counting off from 
the first point already selected, the next binding point would 
come where the fourth back pick crosses the fifth face thread, and 
as this point is surrounded by risers of both face and back weaves, 
it is obviously incorrect for this system of binding. Then using 
five instead of three as a move number, the next point would 



149 



138 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



come where the sixth back pick crosses the fifth face thread, and 
as this point is a good one in all respects five may be accepted as 
a move number for the sateen, as it will distribute the binding 
points in correct positions all over the design, as shown by circles 
in Fig. 204. Fig. 185 should be bound with the same motive as 
Fig. 184; Fig. 186 may be bound in a similar manner to Fig. 
184, using instead of the one up and three down binding motive, 
the one up and five down, commencing at a similar point; Fig. 
187 could not be suitably bound without a further extension, as 
there are only two back threads ; Fig. 190 could be bound with 
the same motive as Fig. 186 ; and Fig. 192 with the same motive 
as Fig. 184. Any changes made in the design by inserting or 
removing risers for binding purposes will, of course, necessitate 
a corresponding change in the drawing-in draft and chain. 



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Fig. 205. 



Fig. 206. 



It will be noticed that the last three examples are arranged 
in the proportion of two threads of face to one of back. With 
designs arranged in this manner, the first system of binding is 
always preferable because the addition of binding points would be 
likely to so complicate the face weave as to necessitate the use 
of more harnesses. 

.With the design arranged one of face and one of back, there 
would be no choice of binding systems, except in a case where the 
face weave were a fancy one with a plain or simple twill back. 
Then the binding should be done by the second system, as it 
would not increase the number of harnesses required, because the 
face weave would probably occupy a greater number of harnesses 
than the back. Suppose for example the face weave is an eight- 
harness fancy twill and is to be backed by a four-harness twill, 
the binding motive to be au eight-havnegs sateeu, If the binding 



16Q 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 139 



were done by the first system, it would require eight back threads 
to repeat the binding, and as the back weave would repeat on four, 
it would prevent any reduction of the number of harnesses for the 
back weave. If the binding were done by the second system, as 
the face is composed of eight face threads, the binding would not 
increase ; the number of harnesses would then be reduced to four. 

As a further illustration of weaves and binding, suppose that 
Fig. 205 is to form the face fabric, and that there must be a back 
cloth woven upon it, and also suppose that the cassimere twill in 
Fig. 206 is the back weave, and that there are two threads and 
picks of face to one each of back. What would be the relations 
of the two weaves to each other? The face pattern occupies 
twelve threads and the back weave occupies only four threads, 
consequently, there being two of face to one of back, when the 
face pattern is complete there would be six threads, or one repeat 
and a half of the back weave, so that to make the whole complete 
the face must be repeated and the back continued until there are 
twenty-four of the face and twelve of the back, as shown in Fig. 
207. When this is done, it must be evident that the relations of 
the two weaves must be different in the first half and the second 
half respectively. 

Now suppose that in the design given in Fig. 207, a binding 
point were found as indicated on the second face pick and first 
back thread ; the corresponding point in one repetition would not 
bear the same relation to the face and back respectively, as is 
shown on the seventh back thread and second face pick, by 
the hollow diamond. The correct arrangement is shown fully 
carried out in the design, but not in the chain and draft. It will 
be seen that at the point of binding when the back filling is over 
one of the threads of its own cloth, and the next pick of the face 
following immediately upon it is passing under the same thread, 
there is a great probability of one showing through to the surface 
of the other. 

In binding two cloths together, there must be some attention 
paid to the distribution of the bindings, exac'tlj^ as mere is when 
backing with warp or filling only, and this may materially affect 
the number of harnesses employed. If the binding is to be don^ 
by the second system, then in all probability there would be no 



151 



140 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



necessity to increase the number of harnesses employed, because 
at the point of binding any one of the harnesses carrying the warp 
thread selected for binding could be left down at the desired point 
for the back filling to pass over, and the distribution could be 
arranged according to the character of the design ; if, however, the 
first system is used, then for the purpose of obtaining the desired 
distribution there must be more backing harnesses employed. 



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Fig. 207. 

Look for example in Fig. 207, the draft of which is given in Figc 
208 and the chain in Fig. 209 ; there are four back harnesses 
only. There could be no proper distribution of a reasonable char- 
acter if the binding were done on the back warp threads, therefore 
there must be an extension. Take for example Fig. 210, which is 
the same face design with a plain back, with the draft in Fig. 
211 and the chain in Fig. 212 ; here it would be absolutely 
impossible to bind the two cloths together in anything like a 
reasonable manner with the face filling passing under a backing 



%S2 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



141 



warp, because there are only two backing harnesses used, and 
therefore it could only be on alternate threads. The practical 





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coiirse in this case would be to increase the number of backing 



153 



142 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



harnesses, so that the distribution could take place in accordance 
with the requirements of the pattern. 

To bind this design a ^ motive should be used, starting on 
the first back thread and second face pick. The complete chain, 
including the binding, is shown in Fig. 211 and the draw in 
Fig. 212. 



TO LAY OUT A DOUBLE-CLOTH DESIGN. 

First: Obtain complete dimensions and mark off. 
Second : Shade the back threads and picks with light blue. 
Third : Place the face weaves on the face threads and picks 
with black. 



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Fourth: Place the back weaves on the back threads and 
picks with red. 

Fifth: Raise all the face threads on the back picks with 
green. 

Sixth : Stitch by lifting a back thread between two risers of 
face and next to a riser of back, indicating witli yfellow ; or 

Seventh : Stitch by sinking a face thread between two sinkers 
of back, indicating with a circle. 



154 




O 

^ 6 

r ^ 

° §• 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



143 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

PLATE A. 

1. Stitch plans 1-5 for double cloths, using both warp and 
weft for this purpose. 

2. Complete plans 6-9 for double cloths, using both back- 
ing warp and weft for stitching. 

3. . Make 4 plans for double cloths from the following 
particulars : 



Plan of Face Weave, 



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Plan of Back Weave. 



Plan of Back Warp stitch. 



Plan of Back Weft stitch. 



4. Make plans for double cloths with 1 end ^nd pick of 
face to 1 end and pick of back, using both backing warp and weft 
for stitching; with plan 10 for face and plan 11 for back; plan 12 
for face and plan 12 for back; plan 13 for face and plan 14 for 
back. 

PLATE B. 

5. Complete plans 1-4 for double cloths, using both back- 
ing warp and weft for stitching. 

6. Complete plans 5-8 for double cloths, using the back- 
ing warp for stitching. 

7. Make plans for double cloths 2 face to 1 back in warp 
and weft, with plain backs, and weaves 9, 10 and 11 for face. 

8. Make plans for double cloths 2 face to 1 back warp and 
weft, with twill backs, and weaves 12, 13 and 14 for face. 

9. Point out any defect in plan 15, and give corrected 
plan. 

10. Analyze plans 16 and 17, and give face and back 
weaves, stitching and separating plans. 



155 



144 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



































































































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PLATE A. 



PLATE B. 



156 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



145 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Plan A is a peg plan for draft B ; work out the design 
that would be produced, analyze it and describe its construction. 

2. Give designs for double cloths, 1 and 1 warp and weft 
with (1) plan C for face and back, (2) plan D for face and back, 
also give peg plans to weave them with draft B. 







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3. Make draft and peg plan to weave design E, backing 
healds to be in front, and give two peg plans for original designs 
to be woven in the same draft. 





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4. Put a plain back on plans F, G, H, 2 ends and picks of 
face to 1 end and pick of back ; give peg plans to weave all in 
same draft. 

5. Make plans for double cloths with weaves K, L, M for 
face and same for back, 1 end and pick of face to 1 end and pick of 
back, and make a diagram showing section between 2d and 3d 
picks of plan M. 



157 



146 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 









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H 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make plans for double cloths with plans A, B, C for 
face and D for back in each case ; 1 end face to 1 end back, and 
2 picks face to 1 pick back. 









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2. Make a double cloth with design E for face and a 
wadded satin back. 



158 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



147 



3. Give design, draft and peg plan for a double cloth, 2 
face to 1 back, "with original check plan for face, and a back which 
will hide the backing weft as much as possible. 



riMESi 





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3 TIMES 



4. Make desimis for double cloths A to G with the follow- 
ing weaves : 1 thread face to 1 thread back, warp and weft, using 
extra warp for stitching. 



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Face Back 



Face Back 



Face Back 



5. Rearrange the double cloth designs F and G with 2 
ends and picks of face to 1 end and pick of back, the stitching warp 
to have the same number of ends as the backing warp. 



159 



148 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



6. Analyze plan H, showing on point paper the face and 
back weaves, stitching plan, etc. 

7. Point out any defect in the plans K and L for double 
cloths, and give the correct plan in each case. 



• 

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8. Make a 2 and 2 twill double cloth stitching by means of 
an extra stitching pick. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Supply 2 single weaves for each of the accompanying 
designs, 1, 2, 3 and 4 to weave with the isame set and in place of 
the portions in crosses (X). 









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Doe 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



149 



2. Give color figure produced from design 5, with the fol- 
lowing warping and wefting : 

Warp No. 1 Color — .11 . 1 1 I _ »., Weft No. 1 Color— 1 1 1 _ n 
Warp No. 2 Ground — 213, 2225"""' Weft No. 2 Ground —321] 

8 times 





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3. With a similar design, make an original color figure. 

4. Color design 6, thus showing the effect produced in a 
eioth woven as follows : 



^ w fi- JNo. 1 Ground v,\s White — 17 111\_ 
Warp and Weft | ^^_ ^ q^^^^. J^^ Light Blue - 1 1 1 1 T " 



24 



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161 



150 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



cloth. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. Make plans to imitate plans a, b, c, in a weft-backed 



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2. Make plans to imitate 
plans d, e, f, g, in a single cloth. 

3. Give backed or double 
cloths of which plans h, k, 1, ni, 
n, are imitations. 

4. Back plans p and r 
with warp 1 and 1, and make 
single cloth weaves to imitate 
them in the same settings. 

5. Point out any defects 
in the designs 1 to 7 for double 
cloths, and correct. 

6 . Make plans for a double 
reversible 6 and 6 twill and 8 
and 8 twill, stitched as lightly 
as possible. 

7. Analyze the accom- 
panying plans 8 and 9 for double 
cloths, giving face a li d back 
weaves and stitching plans. 

8. Describe the construc- 
tion of design 10 and analyze it, 
giving separate plans of each 
component part. 

9. In analyzing a double 
cloth the face weave is found 
to be plan 11, and the back 
weave plain ; make peg plan to 
weave the cloth with a draft 
separating the back and face 
healds. 



162 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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163 



152 TEXTILE DESIGN. 

THREE-PLY OR TRIPLE CLOTHS. 

Having treated with double cloths, the next fabric to be con- 
sidered is three-ply or triple cloth. Triple cloths are fabrics 
having three distinct sets of warp and filling, constructed in a 
similar manner to double cloths. There are three different fab- 
rics, called the face, middle and back, bound together at certain 
intervals so as to form one complete fabric. The binding is done 
by the principles as employed in binding double cloths, and, in 
fact, any of the principles used in the construction of double 
cloths apply equally well to the construction of all multiple fab- 
rics. There is ordinarily an equal proportion of face, middle and 
back employed, i. e., one thread of face, one thread of middle and 
one thread of back, with the filling in the same order. 

Yarus differing greatly in size may not be used for the 
different fabrics of a three-ply cloth unless the weaves employed 
are such as will permit of a variation in the diameter of the yarn. 
For instance, if a plain weave is being used for one fabric, and it 
is desired to increase the fabric in weight and yet retain the 
same number of threads per inch, coarser yarn could be used, 
but the weave would have to be changed to one with longer 
floats and fewer intersections, so as to accommodate the increased 
diameter of the yarn. Of course the same number of threads 
per inch niust be retained so as to correspond with the other 
two fabrics. 

The opposite will hold true about changing the weaves, as 
any radical difference in the weaves used would result in a differ- 
ence in texture, i. e., making it either closer or more open, accord- 
ing as to whether the change would be made from a long float 
weave to one with shorter floats, and a greater number of inter- 
sections. For this reason either a finer or a coarser yarn would 
be required to make up for such a difference, unless the number 
of threads per inch could be changed. 

In these triple cloths the weaves generally used are the plain 
weave, simple twills and basket weaves combined in various 
ways. Different effects in such cloths are usually produced by 
the coloring, which may vary extensively in different cloths, and 
sometimes differs entirely on the two surfaces of the same fabric. 

The face and back fabrics are often of a very similar quality, 



164 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



153 



with an inferior class of material for the middle fabric. In fine- 
surface lighter weight goods of high quality the middle cloth 
would probably be of fine worsted warp with a medium woolen 
filling, but with the cheaper class of goods, where a good surface 
is also required with a somewhat greater Aveight, a cotton oi* 
cheap woolen middle warp would be employed, with a coarse and 
cheap woolen filling. 



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Fig. 213. 

Now suppose it is desired to make a three-ply cloth with 

face and back of an equal quality, with a coarser middle cloth. 

2 
For the face and back the cassimere twill weave ~ may be 



used, and for the middle, cloth the six-harness twill may be 

o 

employed so as to permit the use of coarser yarn. It may also 

1 



be the twelve-harness twill 



11' 



Knowing the weaves to be 



165 



154 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



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FACE 



MIDDLE 

Fig. 214. 



BACI\ 



employed, together with the binding motive, the dimensions of the 
complete design may now be ascertained. 

The least common multiple of 4, the face and back weaves, 
6, the middle weave, and 12, the binding motive, is 12, and as it is 
a three-ply cloth, multiplying by 3 will give 36 threads and picks, 
the dimensions of the complete design. Having found the dimen- 
sions required, the design paper may be shaded to indicate the 
different sets of threads and picks, as was done with double 
cloths; but, as in this case there are three different sets of 
threads, two different kinds of shading must be used, one for mid- 
dle and one for back, the face being left unshaded. For the 
middle a light wash of yellow may be used, and for the back a 
light wash of blue; or the middle may be shaded with broken fine 

lines, a n d the back 

with unbroken line 
lines, as shown in 
Fig. 213. By the use of 
either of these methods, 
confusion is avoided. 
Next place the different weaves on the shaded paper, indicating 
the face weave with full squares, the middle weave with straight 
crosses and the back weave with oblique crosses, as shown in Fig. 
214. This being done, the weaves for the different fabrics are all 
indicated, but nothing has been done to separate the three fabrics, 
i. e., to prevent the filling intended for one cloth interweaving 
with the other warps. When the face filling is being interwoven, 
the middle and back warps must be left down, and as these warps 
have not been raised on the face pick, no change is necessary on 
that pick. When the middle pick is being interwoven, the face 
warp must all be lifted and the back warp must all be left down, 
so on this pick the face warp is lifted, as shown by the round 
marks in Fig. 213. When the back pick is being inserted, both 
the face and middle warps must be lifted out of the way of the 
back filling, and this is done as indicated by the round marks on 
the back pick in Fig. 213. Now all the weaves are indicated, and 
the lifters which separate the three cloths are also indicated, the 
binding only being necessary to complete the design, because the 
design without the bmding would produce three distinctly sepa- 
rate cloths not joined together at any point. 



166 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



155 



The best results in binding three-ply cloths are obtained by 
using a combination of the two methods employed for double 
cloths in such a manner as to bring all the binding on the middle 
threads. This is accomplished by lifting a middle thread over 
a face pick at a suitable point, thus binding the face and middle 
oloths together, and by binding the middle and back together, by. 
sinking a middle thread under a back pick at a suitable point. 
The rules given for selecting binding points hold good with three- 
ply, the same as with double cloths. Occasionally a three-ply 
fabric is bound directly through from face to back, or viee versa, 
but unless this is made necessary by some particular reason, it 
should not be done. Now to bind the design above : first bind 

























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Fig. 215. 

the face and middle together by lifting a middle thread over a 
face pick. Referring, to the design, it will be seen that on the 
first face pick there is but one point which answers the require- 
ments necessary to produce a perfect binding. This point is 
where the first face pick crosses the first middle thread, and it will 
be noticed that the face thread on each side of this point is lifted, and 
also the middle thread is lifted over the middle pick preceding 
and the middle pick following this point, thus making it a perfect 
binding point in every way. This may be taken as the first 
point, and as the face and middle weaves are regular twills, the 
binding motive also being a regular twill, the consecutive binding 
points will come at positions governed by the same conditions, 



167 



156 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



i. e., at the point where the second face pick crosses the third 
middle thread, etc. These points are indicated by the diamond- 
shaped marks in Fig. 213, making the binding of the face and 
middle complete. To complete the design, it is onl}'- necessary 
to bind the middle and back fabrics together by sinking a middle 
thread under a back pick. As all the middle threads have been 
lifted over the back picks by the circular marks in the same 
design, it is necessary to remove one of these marks wherever the 
binding makes it necessary, or such point may be indicated with a 
circle, this circle to indicate a sinker. This binding point must 
conie where the back filling crosses the middle warp, with a sinker 
of back on each side and a sinker of middle both on the preced- 
ing middle pick and on the middle pick following. 



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Fiff. 216. 



Referring to the design, it will be seen that there is but one 
point answering this description on the first back pick, and that is 
where it crosses the last middle thread. This point has a sinker 
of back on each side of it, and a sinker of middle preceding and 
following it, answering fully the required conditions. Taking 
this point as the first, indicate it with a circle, as shown, and fol- 
lowing out the binding points in consecutive order the next 
comes where the second back pick crosses the first middle thread, 
etc., continuing until all the points are indicated by these circles. 
The design is now fully completed, the three different weaves 
being indicated, also the face lifters on the middle picks, and the 



168 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 157 

face and middle lifters on the back picks, the three fabrics thus 
being bound together. 

The drawing-in draft for the above design is given at Fig. 
215, vi^ith the chain-draft at Fig. 216, and a cut section of the first 
three picks at Fig. 217. Fig. 218 is a design composed of the 
same three foundation weaves as before, and is like Fig. 213 in 
eYSYj way but the binding. In this case the binding is done 
by lifting a middle thread over a face pick to bind the middle 
and face together, and by lifting a back thread over a middle 

pick. The bindinsr motive is a twelve-harness twill and the 

t ^ 11 

binding is indicated in the design by the diamond-shaped marks. 
Fig. 218. Thc' threads are numbered underneath the design in 
the order of the drawing-in draft, and as this design would re- 
quire twenty-eight harnesses as compared with twenty for tlie 
previous example, it shows clearly the advantage of doing all the 




Fig. 217. 

binding with the middle warp as in Fig. 213. The difference 
of eight harnesses is often the difference between a design which 
may be practicably woven and one which may not, and in this 
case may be truly said to be so. 

In many mills cloths are woven which have two fillings 
interwoven with three warps, the middle warp being employed 
only for the purpose of binding the face and back fabric together. 
This warp, which is called the stitching or binding warp, would, 
in the finer class of goods, probably be made of fine worsted, and 
in the cheaper class cf goods be made of cotton. 

The advantage o^ using this middle warp is that a double- 
face cloth using such a warp is usually of a much softer and 
fuller texture than a double cloth in which the two fabrics are 
bound directly together, and there is less danger of the colors of 
one cloth showing through the face of the other. The superior 
texture of a eloth made with a binding warp is due to the shrink- 



M9 



158 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



age of the wool in the face and back fabrics during the fulling 
process, which affects the worsted very little, or the cotton not at 
all, thus causing the worsted or cotton warp to kink enough to 
allow the face and back fabrics to separate slightly, and in this way 
cause the extra softness, where in the ordinary double cloth the 
two fabrics would be firmly felted together. 




5 17 Z 6 18 5 7 19 4 8 20 I 9 21 Z \OZZ 3 1 1 23 4 1224 I 13 25 Z 1426 3 lip 4 16 
Pig. 218. 

A design for this kind of fabric is given at Fig. 219, where 
the face and back weaves are both the four-harness cassimere twill 
2 
^ bound together by first lifting the middle thread over a face 

pick, and then sinking it under a back pick at such points as meet 
the proper requirements, at other points it merely floating between 
the face and back fabrics. 

The binding motive is an eight-harness sateen, as indicated 
by the diamond-shaped marks where the binding tln^eads are lifted 



170 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



159 



over the face picks, and by the circles where they are sunk under 
the back picks. 

Other multiple cloths may be made in .the same manner as 
those already described, in varying proportions, as two warps with 
two or three fillings ; three warps Avith two, three or four fillings ;• 
four warps with three, four or five fillings, etc. For fabrics used 
for clothing anything over three-ply is rarely made, but as a 
matter of experiment, fabrics have been woven up to eight-ply. 




I 5I3|2 6!l4|3 7115 4 8| 

Fig. 219. 



TO LAY OUT A TRIPLE CLOTH DESIGN. 

First : Obtain complete dimensions and mark off. 

Second: Shade the middle threads and picks with light wash 
of yellow. 

Third : Shade the back threads and picks with light blue. 

Fourth : Place the face weave on the face threads and picks 
with black. 

Fifth: Place the middle weave on the middle threads and 
picks with blue. 

Sixth : Place the back weave on the back threads and picks 
with red. 

Seventh : Raise all the face threads on the middle picks, and 
all the face threads on the back picks, mth green. 

Eighth: Stitch by lifting a middle or back thread between 
two risers of face or middle, and next to a riser of middle or back, 
indicating with yellow ; or 



171 



160 



TEXTILE DESIGN. 



Ninth : Stitch by sinking a face or middle thread between 
two sinkers of middle or back, indicating with a circle 

Tenth: In some triple cloths where an extra heavy middle 
cloth is used to gain weight, the back thread should be lifted right 
through >to the face to pievent any possibility of the stitching 
showing, as would be likely if the middle warp were used for that 
purpose. 

EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 

1. ^ Make a design for a three-fold cloth with a 2 and 2 twill 
for face and hopsack back. 

2. Make a design for a cloth with 4 warps and 3 wefts, 
with a prunelle twill for face and back. 

3. Analyze the design A, giving diagram of a section of the 
cloth weft way. 



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4. Describe the construction of the designs B and C, and 
mark the ends in the plan which you would put on the same 
beam. 

5. Make a design for a double 3 and 3 twill, same face as 
back, with a third warp in the middle, having half the number of 
threads of the face warp. 

6. Make plans for 3-fold cloths with designs D and E for 
face and back, and with a plain cloth in the middle. 



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TEXTILE DESIGN 

PART IV 



DOUBLE PLAIN 



"Double plain," as the name implies, means a double fabric com- 
posed of two warps and two fillings, the face warp and filling weaving 
plain, and the back warp and filling weaving plain. This class of 
weaves is chiefly used to produce fancy effects by combining or inter- 
changing the single cloths. If one color of yarn is used for both face 
and back cloths, two fabrics of the same color and construction will be 
produced.; while if the odd-numbered threads and picks are one color 
and the even-numbered threads and picks are a second color, two 
separate cloths of different colors will result. Assuming that the first 
color is black and the second color is red, the fabric will have a black 
face with a red back or lining. 

It will not be difficult to understand that if the face and back 
cloths are interchanged; i. e., if the black face yarn is woven on the 
back, and the red back yarn is woven on the face, at predetermined 
intervals, a variety of stripes and figures may be formed. It is on this 
principle that the characteristic double plain patterns are made. 

Construction. Designs of this class differ from the usual double 
and triple cloth designs chiefly in the manner of binding the cloths. 
Where a twill, hopsack, or some other weave with floats of two or 
more threads, is used for the face cloth, it is a very simple matter to pro- 
duce perfect binding by lowering a face thread under a back pick, or 
by raising a back thread over a face pick. These methods are imprac- 
ticable in constructing double plain designs, because the plain weave, 
one up, one down, does not contain floats of two threads, consequently 
the plan of binding would be plainly visible on the face of the fabric. 
This would be especially true when different colors of yarns were used 
for the face and back cloths. However, the manner of stitching the 
cloth is of secondary consideration, for when the face and back fabrics 
are interchanged, they are, of course, bound together. 



175 



162 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



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The first step in laying out a design is to shade the back threads 
and picks, then placing the face and back weaves on their respective 
threads, and raising the face threads on the back picks. This is 
plainly shown in Fig. 219, which gives the successive steps in laying 



Fig. 219. 

out a simple double plain design. If this design were woven with one 
shuttle, two separate cloths bound only at the selvedges would be 
woven. If two shuttles were used, two cloths, independent of each 
other in every way, would be produced. 

The diagram. Fig. 220, shows the threads interlaced in regular 
plain order and gives the relative positions of the face and back cloths. 
It also emphasizes the statement made above to the effect that a double 
plain design does not permit of perfect binding by the methods used on 
the usual ply fabrics. By careful attention to Fig. 221 it will be seen 
that the face and back cloths may readily be woven in solid colors with- 
out interfering with each other in any way. 
This figure shows a cut section of the first 
four picks, and represents two plain cloths 
one over the other. 

The foregoing explains the principle of 
double plain construction, but, excepting in 
the manufacture of seamless bags and pock- 
ets, it is not used to any extent. It is used 
^sfes here to illustrate the possibilities of double 
plain designs and the impossibility of obtain- 
ing good results by attempting to bind them 
by ordinary stitching. With these points clearly understood, those 
that follow will present few difficulties. 

The simplest pattern that may be produced is the "Hairline" or 
very fine stripe effect in solid colors, the effect being produced by the 
face and back cloths interchanging. To explain how this is done, it 
will be best to select a pattern and illustrate the successive steps 






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176 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



163 



necessary for its production. For example, assume that a pattern 
must be made with alternate stripes of black and red on the face, the 
black stripe to be six threads wide and the red stripe to occupy two 
threads. When the cloth is turned over, the color effect will be re- 
versed, showing six threads of red and two threads of black. 

Referring to Fig. 222, it will be noted that 16 x 8 squares have 
been marked off, and the first twelve threads shaded in the usual way to 
produce double plain cloth. These threads give the black stripe on 







£^3rd. Pick 



Fig 221. 



the face of the cloth and the red stripe on the back. So far no change 
has been made from the method pursued in Fig. 219, but it is evident 
that something must be done to reverse this order and make the red 
stripe appear on the face. This is accomplished as follows: 

Those picks and threads that were shaded for the back cloth are 
now used for face, and vice versa. The warp being dressed one black, 
one red, the opposite color will be raised to the face. The even 
numbered threads and picks are now the face threads and face picks, 
and therefore a solid red stripe is formed at this section of the design. 







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Fig. 222. 

The complete design also is shown in Fig. 222. After the threads 
are shaded, the design is completed by putting the plain weave on both 
face and back ends and picks, and raising the face warp on the back 
picks in the usual manner. 

The cut section in Fig. 223 shows the first four picks. It will be 
noted that the odd picks, which are black, interlace only with the odd- 
numbered threads, while the even-numbered picks, which are red, 
interlace only with the same color of warp. The cloths are bound 
together at the point where the interchanging takes place, which in 



177 



164 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



this design is at threads 11, 12, 13, and 14. If the design were carried 
out one more repeat, it would, of course, be bound at threads 1, 2, 15, 
and 16, as the black face cloth returns to its normal position. 

For a further example of double plain stripe patterns, refer to 
Fig. 224, The warp for this design is dressed one black, one red; and 
the filling pattern also is one black, one red. When woven, the face 




Fig. 223. 

pattern of the cloth will be six black, two red, two black, two red. 
.Of course, the under surface of the cloth will be the reverse, or six 
red, two black, two red, two black. The chief object of this design is 
to show how the face cloth is returned to the face of the fabric after 
weaving on the back. 

Examples of stripe patterns formed on this principle could be 
multiplied, but the principle is the same in all. The important points 
to be remembered are to shade the threads and picks as in the case of 
double cloth, interchanging the cloths by bringing two back or two 
face threads together. 

Check patterns are made by extending the principles used in the 
production of stripe effects. This is illustrated by the shaded design 
paper shown at Fig. 225. It will be noted that not only do two face 
and two back threads come together, as at BB and FF, but two face 



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Fig. 224. 

and two back picks adjoin as at bb and //, reversing the cloths at these 
points which, of course, are the binding points of the fabric. To 
better explain the construction of check patterns it will be best to work 
out from the beginning a design of this class. 

The first step is to select a suitable pattern, which in this case is a 
black and white checkerboard effect to repeat on twenty-four threads 



17» 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



165 



and twenty-four picks. The warp will be dressed one black, and one 
white, and the filling will be woven one black, one white. After 
determining the area the design is to 
occupy the ends must be shaded and 
the face weave placed on the face 
threads and picks. This is shown at 
Fig. 226. The plain weave must now 
be placed on the back threads and 
picks, and risers be filled in to lift the 
face warp over the back picks. The 
complete design is shown at Fig. 227, 
and if woven the effect would be alter- 
nate squares of black and white, each 
square occupying six threads and six picks. 

. Spot effects or floral designs may be produced upon the same 
principle by allowing the back cloth to weave on the face to form the 
required spot or floral effect. 

SPOT WEAVES 

This class of weaves is used to a large extent in manufacturing 
cotton and worsted fabrics, as the nature of spot weaves makes them 




Fig. 225. 



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especially adapted to the production of large varieties of neat effects. 

It will be readily understood that it is necessary to have some of 

the yarn float on the face of the cloth where it is desired to form a spot; 



178 



166 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



also that the manner in which the yarn is allowed to float determines 
the shape and appearance of the figure. 

Spot effects may be produced in three ways; first, by forming the 
spot of the same yarn that forms the body or ground work of the cloth; 
second, by employing an extra warp which does 
not in any way affect the ground weave, but is 
brought to the face at regular intervals to form 
the figure; third, by the use of an extra filling 
which, like the extra warp, floats on the back of 
the cloth when not weaving on the face to make 
the pattern. The first method limits the pattern 
to the colors used in the ground, while the second 
and third methods permit the use of different ma- 
terial of any color desired. 

It is unnecessary to take up the first method very fully as it is 
similar to many of the simple weaves already explained, and also be- 
cause it is taken up on a larger scale under the heading "Jacquard 
Designing." It will be sufficient to state that spots formed by the 
yarn that composes the body of the cloth are produced by introducing, 
at the point where a spot is desired, a second method of interlacing 



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Fig. 230. 



the threads. For instance assume that a diamond spot is required 
on a plain ground (that is, the ground to be woven with a plain weave), 
the spots to be arranged in plain order, and the full design to repeat 
on twelve threads and twelve picks. 

The first step is to mark off the extent of the design or the area 
it is to occupy, and as the spots are to be arranged in plain order, to 
divide it into four equal parts, each containing six threads and six picks. 
This is shown at Fig. 228. As the spots must have the same relative 
position it will be helpful to mark one of the small squares that the 



180 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



167 



spots may be filled in with relation to these squares. This also is 
shown at Fig. 228. 

The next step is to fill in the spots and place the ground weave 
around them as shown at Fig. 229. Careful attention must be given 
to the arrangement of the figures and the manner of filling in the 
ground weave, otherwise the effect shown at Fig. 230 will be produced. 





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Fig. 232. 



A careful study of Fig. 230 in connection with Fig. 229 will emphasize 
the value of a careful disposition of the spots with regard to facilitating 
the work of adding the ground weave. Note how the clear cut ap- 
pearance produced by Fig. 229 is destroyed by the ground weave being 
run into the figure as at Fig. 230. 

The second method of making spot designs, i. e., by the use of 
extra warp threads to form the figure, presents no difficult features to 
those who have mastered warp-backed cloth designs for it is similar 
in every detail. Assume that a design is being laid out for back cloth, 

^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ .C^^ 

Fig. 233. 

but that the backing threads are silk or fine quality cotton or worsted, 
and instead of being carefully stitched so that they will not show on the 
face they are floated on the face to form spots. This clearly explains 
the construction of spot designs by this method. 

Attention must be given to the disposition of the spots, as regards 
the distance they are placed from each other, and the order in which 
they are arranged, such as plain, sateen, etc. For an example of this 
method see Figs. 231 and 232. The small figure in Fig. 231 represents 



181 



168 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



the spot which is to be superimposed upon a plain ground. The first 
operation is to shade the extra threads, or those which represent the 
extra warp threads, and fill in the plain weave oil the ground threads. 
This is shown at Fig. 231. The figure must now be placed on the 
shaded threads and the design is complete as shown at Fig. 232. Fig. 
233 shows a cut section of the first and second 
threads interlacing with the filling. 

This pattern, when woven, will not have the 
appearance suggested by Fig. 232 as the ground 
threads will, of course, close over the spaces which 
represent the extra threads and they will be en- 
^^" ■ tirely hidden from view. 

It must not be supposed that the ground effect is limited to the 
plain weave for any of the simple weaves such as twill, sateen, etc., 
may be used. These figures are not given because of their value as 
designs but to illustrate the principles on which these effects are laid 
out. 

As a further example of the spot effect produced by extra warp, 
and one which is of a more practical nature, refer to Figs. 234 and 235. 



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. Fig. 235. 

Fig. 234 represents a spot which must be produced on a cassimere 
twill ground, once every twenty-four picks. The ground warp and 
filling are red and the extra warp is white mercerized cotton. The 
ground cloth counts forty threads to the inch and there must be one- 
half inch between the rows of spots. 



18S 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



169 



As in the previous example the extra threads are shaded and the 
ground weave, which in this case is the cassimere twill, is placed on the 
ground threads. The next step is to place the figure on the extra 
threads. Apparently the design is now complete, and in fact it would 
produce good cloth. However, a designer should seek means to pro- 
duce the best that is possible and in this case something more may be 
done to improve the design. The first and last extra threads are 
interlaced once in twenty-four picks, or in the full repeat of the design. 
This means that they will float on the back of the cloth for twenty- 
three consecutive picks if some method is not devised to prevent it. 
For this reason the extra threads are stitched at convenient places as 
shown in Fig. 235. 

As the ground yarn is red and the spot or extra threads are white, 
it must be understood that care should be exercised in the selection of 
binding places or the stitch will spoil the face effect. The rule given 









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Fig. 236. 

for stitching backed fabrics applies equally well here and is as follows : 
The extra thread must be raised over a pick of the face filling at a 
point where the threads on each side of it are raised. 

The drawing in draft and harness chain for Fig. 235 are given at 
Figs. 236 and 237. These are made in the manner common to backed 
and ply-cloths, the ground threads being drawn in on the front harness- 
es as they are so greatly in excess of the extra threads. This facilitates 
the operation of weaving the cloth as, there being so many more ground 
threads, there will be more breakage among them and they may be 
more readily tied up if drawn in on the front harnesses. 

The formation of spot designs by the use of extra filling is the 
third and last method in our classification. It is exactly the reverse 
of the second method and the principles involved are very similar to 



183 



170 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



■ 


























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Fig. 237. 



those employed when constructing filling backed fabrics. It is not 

difficult to understand that the blank squares on the shaded picks in 

Fig. 238 will make a filling spot of the same character as the small 

figure at the left of the design. Of course, 
the crosses represent that the other threads 
will be raised so that the extra pick, which 
may be of a radically different color from 
the ground, will not show on that part of 
the cloth. If the distance between the 
figure is so great that the extra filling will 
float loosely on the back of the cloth, it 
may be stitched in the same manner that 
the back filling is fastened to the face 
cloth in a filling backed design, i. e., by 
lowering a ground thread under it between 
the two floats of the ground filling. 

To explain the meaning of arranging 

spots in sateen order Figs. 239 and 240 have been prepared. It 

should be understood that although this design is of the extra fill- 
ing class the arrangement of spots secured may be obtained equally 

well on both the other methods. 

The small figure at the left of Fig. 239 represents the spot which 

it is desired to produce in five harness sateen order on a three harness 

twill ground, the spots to be 

placed as close together as 

practicable. Fig. 239 shows 

the design laid out with the 

spot figure arranged on the 

extra filling picks, and Fig. 240 

shows th3 design complete, with 

the ground weave filled in on 

the ground picks. Fig. 241 

shows a cut section of the first 

and second picks interlacing 

with the warp. 

In all spot designs the ground vv^eave must repeat on the extent 

of the design, or the arrangement of the figures must be changed to 

occupy a number of threads and picks which is a multiple of the 















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Fig. 238 



184 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



171 



threads and picks occupied by the weaves. Take for example Fig. 240 
which repeats on fifteen threads. If the plain weave were used for the 
ground in this design, the first and fifteenth threads would be the same, 



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Fig. 239. Fig. 240. 

and when the design is repeated would come together to form a double 
thread. This would be a serious defect, and would make the design 
practically valueless. 

PILE OR PLUSH 

Fabrics made by this class of weaves differ both in structure and 
appearance from all others as their surface presents a series of short 
threads- which issue from the body of the cloth. These loops formed 
by the yarn are termed pile. 

Plushes may be divided into two classes, i. e., warp pile and 
filling pile. The former is cloth in which the loop is formed by the 

Fig. 241. 

warp, while in the latter the loop is formed by the filling These two 
classes may be subdivided into cut and uncut, or cut and loop pile. 



18fi 



172 TEXTILE DESIGN 



Filling Plush. This is the. simplest of all pile fabrics. As sug- 
gested by the name, the cloth is formed by a series of filling threads 
floating on the surface. The operation consists of weaving a ground 
cloth, plain or otherwise, and weaving a filling floating loosely over 
the surface and bound into the ground at certain regular intervals. 
This surface filling is then cut as nearly as possible in the center of the 
float, and stands up from the body of the cloth, thus forming a cut 
pile. 

The diagram shown at Fig. 242, is a cut section of a common 
velveteen, the weave being shown at Fig. 243. Two picks are shown 
in the diagram, one of ground and one of pile. The ground filling, B, 
in conjutiction with the warp forms quite a plain fabric, while the pile 
filling, A, passes under one warp thread and over five. The letter C 
shows the pile filling cut at one of the floats. An examination of Fig. 
243, will show that the ground weave is plain while the pile picks are 
bound down once every six threads, there being three picks of pile 
filling to one pick of ground. The pile picks are marked P, and the 
ground picks are marked G. 

The structure of the cloth must be carefully considered in order 
to determine the best method of binding the pile into the cloth^ and also 
the best distribution of the pile over the surface of the fabrics. If the 
pile is not firmly bound it will not permit of its being cut, and if it were 
cut the yarn would constantly be pulling out in wearing as there would 
be no power to resist friction. 

The firmness of the binding is dependent upon the compactness 
of the fabric and the manner in which the pile filling is interwoven 
with the ground, and in the case of Fig. 243, where the pile filling passes 
around but one warp thread, it makes little difference how the binding 
point is distributed, because it will have to depend entirely upon the 
pressure of the ground picks on each side to secure it firmly in the 
fabric. 

In the design shown in Fig. 244, the pile filling interweaves with 
three warp threads, which, of course, increases the holding power of the 
ground cloth. The ground picks are marked G and the pile picks are 
marked P. As in Fig. 243, there are three picks of pile filling to one 
pick of ground, however, in this design the pile filling floats over nine 
consecutive threads, making a longer loop. The diagram at Fig. 245 
shows a cut section of two picks in this pattern and has been prepared 



166 




EMBROIDERY LOOM DESIGNED TO WEAVE A RAISED FIGDRE OF ANY 
DESIRED PATTERN 

Crompton & Knowles Loom Works 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



173 



to show the increased holding power of this method of binding. The 
pick marked P interweaves with the fifth, sixth and seventh threads. 
In this instance the ground filhng would not have to be beaten up so 
firmly to produce a good cloth. 

It is sometimes found difficult to obtain the requisite weight of 
texture in plushes made with a plain ground weave, or sometimes for 




Fig. 242. 

other reasons the construction must be changed. At such times the 
ground may be twill instead of plain and the same plan of distribution 
followed. However, great care niust be exercised in arranging the 
binding, so as to make it firm. 

The diagram at Fig. 245 shows a method of binding into more 
than one thread upon a plain ground. The same rule will apply to 
twill grounds, but instead of interweaving with three threads it would 
be necessary to use four or more as shown in Fig. 246. 

In all the examples given there have been three picks of pile to 
one pick of ground. In order that the impression may not be given 



G_l_a_ir ii | I H l l a G l iBl lal !■ ! ! ■ ! ! ■ ! ! ■ ! 

P ■ ■_ P ■ H 

PI 1 Pilllllliiiii 

Gi_i_f_a_a_a_ gb h ■ ■ ■ ■ 

p____" ■_ p i-i- 

P 1 B p- «-! ' — 

Pl"l I M I ■ pi~B 



Fig. 243. 



Fig. 244. 



that this is the only construction that may be used, Fig. 247 has been 
prepared with five picks of pile filling to one pick of ground. This 
of course gives a much denser pile. It will also be noted that in this 
design every warp thread is used to bind the pile filling, this being 
necessary where a large number of pile picks are used to give a dense 
fabric. 

Corduroy. In addition to being distributed equally over the 
face of the cloth, piles are made in stripe or cord form which are 
termed corduroy when they run in the direction of the warp. The 
binding differs from that of plushes in that it is confined to a few ends, 



187 



174 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



the object being to present the appearance of ribbed cloth, the rib 
to stand out very prominently. 

Referring to Fig. 248, and comparing it closely with Figs. 243 and 
244, it will be readily noted that there is no difference between ^velvet- 

Fig. 245. 

eens and corduroys, except in the manner of binding the pile filling; 
the object in the former being to distribute it as evenly as possible 
over the entire surface of the cloth, and in the latter to confine it to a 




QC^^ 



Fig. 246. 

few threads that it may run in lines and thus form cords. There are 
two picks of pile to one of ground and the binding is done by the first, 
second, sixth and seventh threads. 

Another corduroy weave is shown at Fig. 249. In this plan it will 
be noted that there are eight warp threads, and the four harness cassi- 
mere twill is used for the ground. Of these eight threads only two are 
interwoven with the pile filling, leaving threads one, two, three, four, 
seven and eight, to form the space between the pile after the filling is 
cut. The special feature of this pattern is that 
but one pick of pile is used for one pick of ground. 
This is due to the fact that the cassimere twill is 
used for ground, which allows a much larger num- 
ber of picks to be beaten in than the plain weave 
would under similar circiraistances. 

Fig. 250 represents still another corduroy 
weave. The ground weave is a three harness 
twill, two up, one down, and there are three picks 
of pile filling to one of ground. The binding is done on the first, 
second, eighth, and ninth threads. 

In all these examples of corduroy weaves, the two loops corre- 
spond to two cords in the cloth in each repeat of the pattern. In Fig. 
250 the first, third, sixth, ninth, and eleventh picks of pile filling float 
over seven threads for the first cord, and then over three picks for the 



G ■_l_l_l_l 

P~ ■_! 

P~ B_l 

pli :i 

p ■_■ 

p_i_i 

GB ■ ■_■_■_ 

PlII 1_1_ 

P I_l 

PI I- 

P 1_1 

P« ■ 



Fig. 247. 



1«8 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



175 



GM_1 ■ ■ 

P« i 

P_« i~ 

G_Bli~"i~ 

PI i 

P ■ ■ 



Fig. 248. 



second cord, while at picks two, five, etc., the pile filling floats over five 
threads for each cord. This, in addition to facilitating the binding, 
gives a rounded cord which is much desired. 

There is very little art in making designs for filling plushes and 
corduroys. The chief objects to be kept in view 
are, in the former, to produce a firm binding to 
fasten the pile to the ground and a proper distri- 
bution of the binding positions over the surface, 
while in the latter the binding must be as firm as 
possible and must be confined to such threads that 
it will make a prominent cord. However, very frequently figured 
patterns are made with filling piles by allowing the filling to float on 
the surface for the space required to form the flgure and then binding 
it into the cloth after the manner of fancy ordinary weaving. 

Warp Plush. The principles involved in the 
formation of pile of this description are sunilar 
to those in filling pile, yet the treatment and method 
of constructing the design are different. In the con- 
struction of the latter two fillings and one warp 



■ 

11 ■■ 

1 

1 11 1 

IZllZZii 

■ 

■■ ■■ 



are employed, while in the former two warps and 



Fig. 249. 

one filling are used. 

The filling pile is woven in the same manner as an ordinary 
fabric, and when it is to be cut this operation is performed after the 
cloth leaves the loom. Warp pile is both woven and cut on the loom. 
Having defined the similarities and differences of these two fabrics, it 
will be easy to understand how warp pile is made. 

Warp pile fabrics are constructed by raising 
the pile threads and inserting a wire, then low- 
ering the pile threads and interlacing them with 
the ground weave. 

The loops formed by the yarn passing over 
the wire may be cut to form common velvet, or 
may be left uncut for Terry cloth. If the velvet 
effect is desired, the wire over which the warp passes, 
is ec[uipped at one end with a knife which cuts the pile as it is with- 
drawn. If Terry is desired, a plain wire is used which, when with- 
drawn, leaves the loops standing. It will be understood that if velvet 
is to be produced the loops are cut, while if Terry is desired, the 



*_li_ii ■■ 1 

1 1_ ~ 

_■ ■ 

1 illl 

lillllli 

1 ■ 

_1 1 

iIIIIIZ~i 

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ir ■ 



Fig. 250. 



186 



176 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



■■ ■ ■ 

■ ■ 

_■ ■ ■ ■_ 

■ ■ 

■ ■ ■ ■ 

■ ■ 

_■ ■ ■ ■_ 

■ ■ 



Fig. 251. 



loops are left intact. Fig. 251 represents a weave for a Terry fabric. 
Fig. 252 shows a velvet weave and that this principle may be 
thoroughly understood it will be analyzed in conjunction with the cut 
section shown at Fig„ 253. Referring to Fig. 252, it will be noted that 
there is one pile thread for every two ground threads and a wire for 
every two ground picks. One-half of the pile warp 
is lifted over the first wire that is inserted, the other 
half being lifted over the second wire, and so on. 
The object of raising one-half of the pile warp at a 
time is that if all the warp were raised it would cause 
rows of pile, which would be visible as lines across 
the cloth. The object of velvet being to produce a 
perfectly even face, this, of course, would be a defect. 

As shown in the cut section the pile warp is raised from and 
returns to the cloth between two ground picks which are in the same 
shed. It then passes over two picks which are in the same shed (and 
between which the other half of the pile is raised) and being lowered 
under the next pick, is again lifted over a wire. This constitutes 
the principle of weaving warp pile. 

When a number of the wires have been woven into the cloth the 
first one put in is withdrawn (cutting the loops) and inserted again, 
then the second is withdrawn in the same manner and 
inserted again. The third follows in like manner and 
so on, this cycle of movement being continued as long 
as the loom is operated. 

In many cases all the pile warp is lifted over one 
wire as shown in Fig. 254, but as stated above, this to 
some extent gives the pile the appearance of being in 
rows which is overcome by raising one-half the pile waip 
over each wire. The pile must be bound into the 
ground as firmly as possible. It will be understood that owing to the 
loops being formed wholly by the pile warp, it takes up much faster 
than the ground, consequently the pile warp must be woven from a 
separate beam to which very little tension is applied. 

There are other methods of forming pile which are more or less 
important. One of these is the method of manufacturing Turkish 
towels, the pile being formed by a cotton warp which is formed into 
loops on the surface of the cloth. This is done without the assistance 



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190 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



177 



of wires by having a special device attached to the reed, which allows 
the filling to be beaten up to a point some distance from the cloth for 
several picks and then beating up these picks over the intervening 
space to the cloth, thus causing the loose pile warp to rise and form a 
loop. The distance between the binding picks and the cloth, before 
they are beaten together, determines the length of the loop. 

This kind of pile presents a very irregular appearance; the loops 




Fig. 253. 

do not stand up well, are of various lengths, and intermixed to a great 
extent. For these reasons this method cannot be used for better 
grades of goods. 

Another form of pile is the one used in the.manufacture of Brussels 
carpets. In this case the pile warp weaves in the ground when not 
required on the face to form the pattern, the required color being 




Fig. -254. 

brought to the surface over wires in the order required to form the 
pattern. If the pile is cut it forms a Wilton carpet, as Wilton bears 
the same relation to Brussels that velvet bears to Terry cloth. 

CHINCHILLA 

This cloth derives its name from a small animal native to South 
America, whose fur it is supposed to imitate. Chinchilla is a very 
heavy fabric with a long nap on the surface which is rolled into curls 
in the finishing operation, by the use of what is known as a chinchilla 
machine. The cloth is used chiefly for heavy cloaks or overcoats 
being much too heavy for other articles of clothing. 

Construction. There are several grades of chinchilla cloth, 
the construction depending upon the quality desired. The following 
constructions are in common use: a, one warp and one filling; b, one 
warp and two fillings; c, two warps and two fillings; d, two warps and 
three fillings; e, two warps and four fillings. When more than one 
warp is used as at c, cZ and e, the different threads are designated as 



191 



178 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



face threads and back threads. When four fillings are used as at e, 
the various sets are designated as pile filling, ground filling, stuffing 
filling and back filling. 

The purpose of the pile filling is to form the face of the goods 
and it gives the long nap necessary for the chinchilla finish. For this 
reason it is interwoven with the face warp by means of a weave that 
will give a long filling float on the face of the goods. The pile filling 
is generally a soft spun thread of fine stock. 

The ground filling is to give the fabric the required firmness. 
It, of course, interlaces with the face warp by means of a much closer 
weave than is used for the pile filling. 

The stuffing filling, sometimes known as the wadding fillin^;^, 
enters the fabric between the face and back warps, not interweavin.--^ 
with either, its purpose being to add weight and bulk to the fabric. 

The back filling interlaces with the back warp by means of weaves 





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which are either even-sided or which present a filling effect on the back. 

These facts being understood a chinchilla Vv^eave will be con- 
structed, every operation being explained in its turn. As in many 
other classes of fabrics the principles of double cloth construction are 
used, being extended or modified as required by the peculiarities of the 
cloth under consideration. In this instance every step from shading 
the design paper to binding the cloths together can be easily traced to 
the double cloth principle, and if looked upon in this light will make the 
construction of chinchillas very simple indeed. 

The three weaves shown at Fig. 255 are to be used in the con- 
struction of a chinchilla design. For the purpose of simplifying the 
explanation they will be termed ground weave, pile weave, and back 
weave. (Note that the pile weave has long filling floats as explained 
in the explanation given above.) These weaves are to be used to form 
a design having two face warp threads to one back warp thread on the 



19S 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



179 



one face, one back, one face system. The filling is to be arranged as 
follows; one pile, one back, and one ground. 

Fig. 256 shows the design paper of the area required, with the 
pile and back picks and the back warp threads shaded. It also shows 
the pile weave on the face warp threads and pile picks. At Fig. 257 
is given the ground weave on the face threads and ground picks. 

A little study at this point will reveal a departure from double 
cloth principles. In double cloth the face weave is placed on the face 
threads and the face filling is the only yarn that interweaves with this 
warp (excepting the binding points). In chinchillas the pile filling 
is an extra set of threads superimposed upon the ground cloth in much 
the same manner as the extra filling is added to the back of a filling 



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backed cloth. Foi> this reason neither the pile nor ground filling is 
referred to as face filling, for it might cause some confusion, it being 
much simpler to give them their proper terms. Before proceeding 
further the relation of the pile and ground picks must be thoroughly 
understood. 

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threads but on different picks explains this fully and Figs. 256 and 257 
should be carefully studied until this is firmly fixed in mind. 

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with the risers added to raise the face warp on the back picks, and 
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193 



180 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



mond shaped dots represent risers for lifting the face warp over back 
picks, and the binding places are indicated by the upright crosses. 
Fig. 260 represents a cut section of the first three picks of Fig. 259 and 
illustrates very clearly the relative positions of the different sets of 
threads. It also gives especial prominence to the long filling float 
of the pile filling. The points marked H show the binding places of 
the cloth and correspond to the upright crosses on the third pick of 

Fig. 259. 

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method of procedure when the ground filling is omitted another ex- 
ample will be worked out. In this instance a twelve harness double 
sateen is used for the pile weave, and the back weave is a cassimere 

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twill. The two cloths are to be stitched in twelve harness sateen 
order. The warp arrangement is one face, one back, and the filling 
is arranged with one double pick of pile, one stuffing or wadding pick, 
and one back pick. 

It should be stated that in binding chinchilla cloths the same 
method is pursued as in binding double cloths, that is, by raising a back 
thread over a ground pick or pile pick, between two risers on the face 
warp and next to a riser on a back warp. In this particular instance 
the binding is accomplished by raising a back thread over one of the 
stuffing picks. 

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example. The first step is to shade, on the design paper, every even 



194 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



181 



numbered warp thread for back, and to shade the picks for two pile, 
one stuffing, one back. The pile weave is then placed on the face 
threads and the back weave is placed on the back threads. Fig. 262 
shows the operation up to this point. The letters at the left indicate 



Ground pick 
Pile pick. 



Back pick 




H H H • 

Fig. 260, 

to which set each pick belongs, P meaning pile; S, stuffing; and B, 
back. 

In completing the design there is one thing that must be done 
which was not met in the previous example. Reference is made to the 
stuffing pick which should be put in the cloth when all the face warp 
is raised and all the back warp is down, 
as it i-s not interwoven in any manner with 
either set of threads. This is accom- 
plished in exactly the same manner as 
raising all the face warp when a back 
pick is placed in the back cloth, except 
that in the latter instance some of the bade 
warp also is raised, while in the former no 
interlacing is desired, so every thread of 
the face warp is raised and every thread of 
the back warp is down. 

The complete design is shown at Fig. 
263. The letters at the left of the design 
are the same as at Fig. 262, being used to 
designate to which class each pick belongs. The upright crosses, on 
the first of each pair of stuffing picks, indicate the binding points. 

PIQUE 

This is a cotton fabric but the principles upon which it is con- 
structed are applicable to Matellasse and other worsted and silk fabrics 
which require raised patterns. The chief characteristic of this class 
of cloth is its embossed effect, the pattern being in relief, the stitching 
forming the outline of the figure. 

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19S 



182 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



of selecting binding points where the stitching would be invisible on 
the face of the cloth has been impressed very forcibly upon the mind 
of the student. This is exactly reversed in the present case for the 
stitching, or at least the effect of the stitching, must be plainly visible 
upon the face of the fabric to produce the required effect. 

The first cloth produced with patterns in relief was probably 

the old quilts made by stitch- 
ing two cloths together by 
hand, the. slightly raised 
parts between the depres- 
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forming the patterns. The 
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but the two cloths are woven 
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stitched as required by in- 
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yarns. In many instances 
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of cotton batting between 
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quilt. The same thing is 
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a stuffing or wadding filling, 
but the object is to produce 
a more raised pattern. 

Construction. Pique 
weaves may be constructed 
in various ways according 



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to the quality of the cloth, but the common article is woven with 
face and back warps, and face, back, stuffing, and binder fillings. 

The actual operation of making a design is not so formidable as 
the above would indicate, in fact, most all cloths made with more than 
one warp and filling are merely variations of double cloth, and if the 
principles of the latter are thoroughly mastered the former will present 
few difficulties. The only principle employed in making pique designs 



196 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



183 



which has not been exploited in the previous articles is the use of a 
binder pick. The face and back cloths are made in the usual way, 
and the stuffing filling is employed in the same manner as explained 
in the lesson on Chinchillas. 

The binder pick is interwoven with both warps. It interlaces 
with the face warp in the same manner as the face picks, but in ad- 
dition to this, the back warp 
is raised over it, which has 
the effect of depressing the 
face cloth at this point. This 
depression is further exagger- 
ated by the stuffing pick ele- 
vating the ridge or rib line. 

The following points 
should be constantly kept in 
mind: The face filling al- 
ways weaves plain with the 
face warp; the back filling 
when used, always weaves 
plain with the back warp; 
the stuffing filling, when 
used, enters between the 
face and back warps; and 
the binder filling unites the 
face and back cloths, or the 
face cloth and back warp 
according to the construc- 
tion of the fabric. If a back 
filling is not used the binder 
of course unites the back 
warp with the face cloth. ^'S- ^^^• 

To illustrate the different classes of pique three examples will be 
taken. The first will have face and back warps, face, back, and binder 
fillings, the warp to be arranged one face, one back, one face, and the 
filling to be arranged two face, one back, two face, one back, two face, 
and two binder. 

The first step is the one which is common to all cloths containing 
two or more warps or fillings; i. e., shade that portion of the design 



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184 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



paper that indicates the back threads or picks. The next step is to 
place the plain weave on the face threads and face and binder picks. 
(The binder picks are always considered face picks when laying out 
the face weave, the difference being that they are also used as binders.) 
Fig. 264 shows the problem worked to this point and gives two 













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• Fig. 264. Fig. 265. 

repeats each way. The back weave is now put on the back threads 
and the face warp lifted over the back picks. This is shown at Fig. 
265. 

Up to this point there has been no deviation from the method of 
constructing a double plain design excepting that the back cloth is of 
very loose texture. It is very evident that something must be added or 
taken away to produce a pique effect of what is 
now a double plain design. In this instance 
something must be added to make the depres- 
sion or recess which is characteristic of these 
cloths. The back warp is raised over the two 
binder picks as indicated by the upright crosses 
in the complete design at Fig. 266, and as these 
picks interweave with the face warp in the plain 
weave order the face cloth is slightly depressed 
at this point.. 

The letters at the left of the design show 
to which class each pick belongs. Those 
marked F are face picks; B, are back picks; and S, are binder picks. 
The diagram at Fig. 267 shows a cut section of the first three threads 
for two repeats of the weave or for the extent of Fig. 266. The end 
sections of the two binder picks are shown at S. It will be noted 



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198 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



185 



that the back thread, 2, passes over these picks while the face threads, 
1 and 3, each pass under one of them, which gives the necessary 
depression. 

The second example will be very similar to the one just explained, 
but in this case the ridges, caused by the portion of the face weave 
that is not bound, must be more rounded and more prominent. To 
produce this result the following arrangement will be used: Warp — 



ff ff 



ff Ff 




one face, one back, one face. Filling — two face, one back, two face, 
one back, one face, one stuffing or wadding, one face, one back, two 
face, one back, four face. It will be unnecessary to work out plans 
showing the various steps in the construction of this design as it is 
similar to Fig. 266 in every detail excepting the stuffing pick. The 
complete design is shown at Fig. 268. Note that the only risers on the 
stuffing pick, are to raise the face warp, for this 
pick lies between the face and back cloths. 
The system of binding is the same as in the 
previous example. 

It must not be supposed that more than 
one stuffing pick could not have been put into 
the design, for one or two more might easily 
have been included at such places as between 
the fourth and fifth, and the eleventh and 
twelfth picks. 

The letters at the left of Fig. 268 show to which set each pick 
belongs, F meaning face, B meaning back, W meaning wadding or 
stuffing, and S meaning binder. 

In manufacturing the cheaper grades of this cloth it is customary 
to omit the back picks, allowing the back warp to float on the back 
of the cloth between the binding points. In designs of this class, 
one or more stuffing picks are generally used. Fig. 269 shows the 
design paper shaded for a fabric of this construction with the plain 
weave on the face threads, and face and binder picks. The arrange- 
ment is one face, one back, one face, in the warp; and two face, one 



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199 



186 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



wadding, two face, one wadding, two face, two binder, in the filling. 
The shaded picks in this design are the wadding picks. These are 
marked W. The face picks are marked F, and the binding picks are 
marked B. 

The complete design is shown at Fig. 270. It will be noted that 
the face warp is raised on the stuffing pick in the usual manner and 



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Fig. 270. 



that the binding is accomplished by raising the back threads over the 
binding picks and interweaving the face warp with them in the plain 
weave order. 

When weaving this grade of pique it is a good policy to have a 
large amount of tension on the back warp and to use very coarse yarn 
for the stuffing pick, otherwise the face cloth will not be deflected and 
the pattern will not be very pronounced. The diagram shown at Fig. 
271 represents a cut section of a fabric woven with this design and 
shows the long float of the back warp. 

Figured Pique. The effect of a figured pique relies chiefly for 
its value upon the system of binding, all other features being secondary 




Fig. 271. 

to this. In constructing a figured pique design the principles of 
double cloth construction are followed very closely, less the use of the 
stuffing or wadding picks and the method of binding being the only 
differences. Waddmg filling is not indispensible, «but as previously 
explained it miakes a more raised pattern. 

The first step in making these designs is a departure from the 
primary operations of other cloths. In this case it is necessary to 
make a motive which determines the extent of the design. This 



900 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



187 



motive is nothing more than a system of binding. For instance, if one 
of these designs' were bound in twill order or with twelve harness 
sateen, the twill or sateen would be termed the motive. It should be 
kept in mind that the motive shows the plan of 
binding and as the binding forms the outline of 
the figures, the motive represents the effect. 

For example suppose a cloth is desired with 
small squares running diagonally across the cloth. 
The first step is to make, a motive that will give 
this effect. Fig. 272 is the result. Having ob- 
tained the motive, it is now necessary to make 
the design. As each binding point spreads over 
three picks, the design must cover three times the area covered by 
the motive or 36 x 36 squares. If stuffing or wadding picks were 
used in the design the extent in the filling direction would of course 



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be a trifle larger, or to be exact, as much larger as the number 
of wadding picks. The design paper is shaded in the regular manner 
for one face, one back, one face, in both warp and filling and the plain 



201 



188 TEXTILE DESIGN 



weave put on both systems of threads. The risers are now put in to 
Hft the face warp on back picks.. 

All that has been done so far would be done in the same manner 
on several other kinds of cloth, but the next step is peculiar to this class 
of fabrics. Reference is met to the binding from a motive. The rule 
which applies in this case is as follows: Raise a back warp thread 
over a face pick on each side of the backing pick and next to a riser on 
the back warp. 

The upright crosses in Fig. 273 show this rule put into effect. In 
this example a wadding pick is not used but one could be inserted 
between any of the two face picks, and the same principles would 
apply as in making plain pique. 

JACQUARD DESIGNING 

In all the classes of designing explained up to this point it has 
been necessary to limit the designs to those that could be woven on 
the ordinary shedding or harness motion. In almost every instance, 
they repeat on from two to twenty-four or thirty threads, and when 
they exceed this number a drawing-in draft can be arranged to 
weave them on a practical number of harnesses. Jacquard design- 
ing includes those designs which are too large to be woven on the 
ordinary harness motion. 

Before attempting to make jacquard designs, it is necessary 
to form a clear idea of the principles on which the jacquard 
machine operates. Figure 274 represents a section of a jacquard 
machine, showing the mechanism for lifting the warp threads. 
To each of the upright hooks A is attached a neck cord, which 
takes the place of the harness in an ordinary loom, and from each 
neck cord are suspended the harness cords through which the warp" 
threads are drawn. A weight is attached to the bottom of the 
harness cord for the purpose of bringing the harness cord, and 
thus the neck cord and hook A, to its original position after being 
lifted. 

The position of the hooks (whether raised or lowered) on each 
pick is determined by the action of the cards upon the needles or 
wires B.. As this is the fundamental principle of jacquard weav- 
ing, it should be thoroughly mastered. To make this principle 
clear, Figs. 275 and 276 have been prepared. Fig. 275 shows a card 



202 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



189 



Oil which one pick of the design is cut, just as one pick of an 
ordinary design is placed on one bar of the harness chain. This 
card passes over the cylinder, shown in Fig. 276, in much the same 
manner as a bar in the ordinary harness chain passes over the chain 
barrel. 

The cylinder has a reciprocating movement, coming in con- 




i 



Fig. 274 



tact with the ends of the needles B; the ends of the needles entering 
the holes in the cylinder. Now, if a blank card is placed on the 
cylinder, the holes will be covered and all the needles will be 
pressed back, carrying their upright hooks out of the path of the 



203 



190 -TEXTILE DESIGN 



griffe C, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 274. The griff e con- 
sists of a number of iron bars which have a vertical reciprocating 
movement and are the direct means of forming the shed. 

If a card on which the pattern has been cut, such as the one 
shown at Fig. 275, is placed on the cylinder, those needles which 
correspond with the holes in the card, will not be pressed back, and 
the griffe in its upward movement will lift the upright hooks. 

The springs D force the needles and hooks back to their orig- 
inal position after the pressure of the cylinder is removed. 

The above are the principles of Jacquard machines. A hole 
in the card always represents a oy'ser, as its corresponding hook 
will be raised and, through the connections, will raise the warp 
thread. The usual practice in tying up the harnesses is to take 



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Fig. 275. 

the first hook in the row nearest the cylinder head and count that 
the first hook in the machine. The other hooks in the same row 
will be counted as the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, 
and eighth hooks. The next row follows on consecutively; the 
first hook being counted the ninth. This is continued until the 
full extent of the machine is reached. 

This arrangement of the machine necessitates, for the con- 
venience of the card cutter, as well as for the designer, a special 
arrangement of the design paper. Each small square of the 
design paper represents one of the upright hooks (A in Fig. 274) and 
consequently the warp threads which are actuated by that hook. 
These small squares are divided by a heavier line, according to the 
number of hooks in one row of the machine. Thus, the number 
of small squares contained in each large square represents the 
number of hooks in each row. 



204 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



191 



A thorough understanding of the above is very essential to 
ensure a knowledge in the use of the design paper. As an 
example, take a machine that has eight hooks in a row (and so is 
necessarily tied up in rows of eight) and design paper which has 
eight small squares in each direction between the large squares; 
in other words 8x8 paper. Beginning at the left, the first small 
square represents the first hook, the next square represents the 
second hook, and so on to the extent of the eight hooks which 
form the first row of the cylinder and the first eight squares of the 
design paper. A heavy line follows the eighth small square, and 
is in turn followed by eight more small squares in a horizontal 
line; these represent the second row of hooks in the machine. 
The small squares between the third and fourth heavy lines rep- 
resent the third row of needles, and so on till the full extent of the 



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Fig. 276. 

machine is reached. 

It will be understood that -each division of the horizontal 
lines and small squares represents one row of upright hooks in the 
jacquard machine, and the number of small squares between the 
heavy dividing lines correspond with the number of upright hooks 
in each row. Tliis arrangement is for the benefit of the card 
cutter, each division representing a row of holes on the card and 
the keys in the cutting machine. To make this clearer, an expla- 
nation of card cutting is given. 

Card Cutting. In designing jacquard designs, the same con- 
dition is necessary which is common to all branches of textile 
designing, i. e., the design must join correctly on all four sides, so 
that, w^hen repeated, the pattern will be continuous and perfect. 
But in this instance, there is one essential condition which is not 
necessary in designing for harness looms. That is, the pattern 
must be repeated a sufficient number of times to begin and end 



205 



192 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



with full squares. This is primarily for the convenience of the card 

cutter. 

In Fig. 277 is shown a design which occupies one full square 

and six extra threads. It will be inconvenient and very impracticable 

to work from this. 

It has been explained that the reason for dividing the paper 

by means of heavy lines, is to make each division of squares corre- 
spond with a row of hooks in the jacquard 
machine, and the holes in the cylinder, 
therefore, it is apparent that when work- 
ing on a machine that has eight hooks in 
a row, the card cutter, after cutting the 
first row in Fig. 277, would read for the 
second row and find only six threads, or 
two less than the number required. This 
would necessitate taking two threads from 

the beginning of the design to complete the second row, consequently 

there would be four threads short on completing the fourth row; 

and so on. This would result in a great deal of confusion and perhaps 

a large number of mistakes. To obviate this difficulty, the design 

is carried out until it repeats on even sets of eight threads, as shown 

at Fig. 278. 

The rule for determining the number of squares on which a 

design will repeat evenly is as follows: Find the least common mul- 



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tiple of the number of threads occupied by the design and the number 
of hooks in each row on the cylinder; (or the number of squares in 
each division of the design paper.) 

It is not necessary to carry out the design in the direction of 
the filling until it repeats on even squares, and in the cas? under 



806 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



193 



discussion, there would be only fourteen cards required, as there 

are but fourteen picks in one repeat of the design. 

Another example of this nature is shown at Fig. 279. One 

repeat of the design occupies eighteen threads and eighteen picks. 

This, of course, must be extended until 

it repeats on even squares of 8 x 8 paper, 

as the machine on which it is to be 

woven has eight hooks in a row. The 

completed design, as shown at Fig. 280, 

occupies seventy-two threads, this num- 
ber being the least common multiple of 
eight and eighteen. 

Another point in connection with 
design paper that should be thoroughly 
mastered is the proportion the number 
of squares in one direction bears to the 
number of squares in the other direction, and its influence upon 
the fabric. If the design is made upon paper which is ruled square, 
that is, 8 X 8, or 12 X 12, the cloth should have the same propor- 
tion of warp and filling. But suppose that it is necessary to change 
the construction of the cloth so that the fiUing is reduced in the pro- 
portion of eight warp threads to six fiUing threads, and the design 
for this construction is placed on 8 x 8 paper. It would, of course, 



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be out of proportion, the figure being elongated by the reduction in 
the number of picks per inch. 

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each direction, and the cloth contained that number of threads and 
picks per inch, the design would be one inch square; but if the 
same cloth were constructed with eighty threads and sixty picks 



207 



194 TEXTILE DESIGN 



per inch, the design would be one inch wide and 1^ inches long. 
To overcome this difficulty, the design must be drawn dispropor- 
tionately, or the design paper must be ruled similar to the con- 
struction of the cloth. The latter alternative is the better. 

In the instance mentioned above, where eighty warp threads 
and sixty picks are used per inch, the heavy lines would be ruled 
square, but instead of eight small squares being ruled in each direc- 
tion, there would be eight squares in a horizontal direction and six 
squares arranged vertically. This is shown at Fig. 281. 

It is sometimes necessary to construct a cloth with a larger 
number of picks than warp threads. In this instance, it will be 
necessary to have more squares in the direction of the filling, or 
vertically. If the proportion is ten to eight, or one hundred picks 
to eighty warp threads, the design paper would be ruled as shown 
at Fig. 282. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 

1. Continue Fig. 283 on 8x8 design- paper until it repeats 
on even squares. 

2. Determine a method of calculating the number of squares 
on which a design would be complete. 

3. What design paper would you use for a cloth constructed 
with seventy-two threads per inch and fifty-four picks per inch, if 
the design were to be woven on a jacquard machine which has eight . 
hooks in a row ? 

4. What design paper would you use if the above cloth were 
woven on a jacquard machine which had twelve hooks in a row? 

5. When it is decided to raise a thread on a specified pick, 
how is this brought about? 

Casting Out. Casting out means omitting some of the hooks 
and harness cords from the calculations, when arranging a pattern 
to be woven on the jacquard machine. The hooks are not actually 
cast out of the machine, and in fact, the harness cords hang from 
these hooks the same as if they were in use, but no warp is drawn 
through them. 

To make this condition clear, assume that a loom is weaving 
a pattern on eighteen harnesses, and it is desired to weave a pattern 
on sixteen harnesses. Ordinarily the two extra harnesses would 



SOS 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



195 



be removed. But suppose these two harnesses are fixtures in the 
loom and cannot be removed. The only thing that can be done in 
such a case is to withdraw the warp from the heddles, allowing 
the harnesses to hang idle in the loom. The foregoing is exactly 
parallel to the condition found in the jacquard machine when some 
of the hooks are not used, or ''cast out." 

As previously explained, the hooks in the jacquard machine 
represent a number of harnesses or their ecjuivalent, and from the 
nature of the machine the hooks which are not required cannot be 
removed. However, the presence of hooks and harness cords does 



1 J 






Fig. 281. 



Fig. 282. 



not make it necessary to use them, any more than the presence of 
the two extra harnesses in the ordinary loom makes it necessary 
to draw in the warp on them. In both cases the extra hooks or the 
extra harnesses are treated as having no existence. 

The necessity for casting out, or leaving a portion of the machine 
idle, may be brought about by two causes. If the number of threads 
occupied by the pattern is one which will not divide into the num- 
ber of hooks which the machine contains, without a remainder, 
a number of hooks as large as the remainder must be cast out or left 
idle. 

What is known as the "three hundred" jacquard machine con- 
tains three hundred four hooks, or thirty-eight rows with eight hooks 
in each row. The "four hundred" jacquard machine contains four 
hundred eight hooks. The "six hundred" jacquard machine con- 
tains six hundred eight, or six hundred twelve hooks, according 
to whether there are eight or twelve hooks in each row. In the 
former there are seventy-six rows and in the latter fifty-one rows, 



208 



196 



TEXTILE DESIGN 





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Ficr. 283. 



which make this machine equal to two "three hundred" jac- 
quards. 

When one of these machines is tied up to its full capacity (that 
is, every hook having neck and harness cords attached) and the 
pattern designed to be woven occupies twenty threads, some of 
the hooks would have to be cast out, as twenty will not divide evenly 
into the total number of hooks. If the machine contained three 
hundred four hooks, there would be four hooks 
cast out, as three hundred four divided by twenty 
equals fifteen with four remaining. (304 h- 20 = 
15/^.) If the four hundred eight machine 
were used, eight hooks would be cast out; and 
so on. 

In many cases, however, the number to be 
cast out would not be so small as four or eight hooks. The pat- 
tern may occupy eighteen threads and have to be woven on a machine 
that has three hundred four hooks In this instance, it would be 
necessary to cast out sixteen hooks. If these hooks were not cast out 
an imperfect pattern would be formed at every division of the harness ; 
or at every three hundred four threads. If the eighteen thread 
pattern had to be woven on a four hundred machine, there would 
be twelve threads left over. It will be understood that only com- 
plete patterns, or as many hooks as will work a number of complete 
patterns, must be employed. 

There is another object in casting out, in addition to adapt- 
ing a machine to weave complete repeats of a design. When a 
jacquard machine is tied up; i. e., when the harness cords are 
arranged in the machine; it is arranged for a certain number of 
threads per inch. When all the hooks are employed the number 
of threads cannot be increased, but it may be reduced by having 
some of the hooks remain idle. To make this clear, assume that a 
loom is working with four ordinary harnesses on each of which 
there are fifteen heddles per inch, or a total of sixty heddles per 
inch for the four harnesses. If only fifty-two threads per inch 
were required, two heddles per inch on each harness would be taken 
off. If it were impossible to remove the extra heddles, the same 
result could be obtained by not drawing the warp threads through 
them. The latter method is the one adopted on the jacquard 



210 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



197 



machines. The cords hang idle in the loom, no warp thread being 
drawn through them, consequently the ''sett" or number of threads 
per inch is reduced.. 

The whole matter may be readily summarized as follows: If 
the full number of hooks contained in the machine are not em- 
ployed, the number of threads per inch is reduced, but there is a 
consequent limitation of the pattern producing power, in extent, 
of the machine. 

Casting out is resorted to for two purposes: f.rst, when the 
number of threads occupied by the pattern cannot be divided evenly 



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Fig. 284. 

into the machine, and, second, when it is desired to reduce the sett 
or number of threads per inch carried by the harnesses. The first 
has the disadvantage of reducing the sett when this may not be 
necessary nor advisable. The second has the disadvantage of 
reducing the pattern producing power of the machine. However, 
these difficulties are part of jacquard designing and must be over- 
come, as it is impracticable to tie up the machine every time a new 
pattern is made. 

To calculate the effect of casting out and thus enable the designer 



ail 



198 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



to obtain correct conclusions as to the sett and number of hooks 
available for the production of patterns, it is necessary to find a rule 
which will give the exact number of threads per inch, and the num- 
ber of hooks that may be used. The question is one of simple pro- 
portion, for when there must be casting out to suit the pattern, the 
threads per inch are reduced in direct ratio. 

For an example, suppose a machine contains three hundred 
four hooks, and is tied up for sixty threads per inch, sixteen of 
the hooks being idle. Three hundred four minus sixteen equals 



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Fig. 285. 

two hundred eighty-eight. (304-16=288.) This means that 
there are two hundred eighty-eight harness cords, of the three hun- 
dred four, available for actual work, and if the full number gives 
sixty threads per inch, the required number must give less, in the 
proportion of three hundred four to two hundred eighty eight : or 
304 : 288 : : 60 : 56 y%\. Consequently the only cloth that could 
be woven would be one with approximately fifty-seven threads 
per inch. 



812 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



199 



This of course would not be a serious matter, if the dravvino- 
amounted in the aggregate to a portion of an inch or any other small 
amount, but if multiplied, as it would be in most cases, it would 
become quite serious and for this reason the designer must pay 
careful attention to this question. 

To emphasize the results of casting out and the methods and 
calculations involved, we will take Fig. 284 and find how many 









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Fig. 286. 

hooks must be cast out to weave it on the different machines, and 
the result upon the number of threads per inch which may be woven 
in the cloth. 

The design shown at Fig. 284 repeats on thirty-five threads, 
so to weave this on a machine containing three hundred four hooks, 
it will be necessary to cast out twenty-four hooks; (304 ^ 35 = 8 
and 24 remainder). 

If the machine were tied up for eighty threads per inch, a smaller 
number of threads must be used on account of some of the hooks, 
and consequently the harness cords, being cast out. The num- 
ber of threads per inch which could be used bears the same pro- 
portion to the number for which the machine was tied up, as the 
number of hooks in use bears to the total number of hooks in the 



213 



200 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



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Fio-. 287. 



machine. Substituting the numbers and letting X mean the re- 
quired number, the calculation would be as follows: 304 : 280 :: 
80 : X. It will be found that X equals approximately 73f threads, 
which means that that number of threads could be used in each 
inch of cloth. 

If a machine with four hundred and eight hooks were used, 
it would be necessary to- cast out twenty-three hooks (408 ^ 35 = 
11 and 23 remainder). If this machine also were tied up for eighty 
threads per inch, it would be possible 
to have between seventy-five and seventy- 
six threads per inch in the cloth (408 : 
385 :: 80 : 75^). 

Distribution of Pattern. Having dealt 
with problems of adapting the machine 
to the pattern, both in extent and texture, 
it is necessary to deal with the arrange- 
ment and distribution of patterns and their 
arrangement upon- the design paper. 
In preparing the design upon the design paper, the first con- 
sideration must be as to how the figure is to be formed. In the 
explanations "of various kinds of designs previously given, it is 
explained that there are many ways of changing the order of 
interweaving the warp and filling threads, which will produce a 
variety of figures upon the fabric ; also that in many cases this 
production of figures necessitates a change in the structure of the 
ground cloth. 

The design shown at Fig. 287 is an illustration of a simple 
style of figure prepared for jacquard work. This design could be 
woven on a dobby loom or head motion, as only sixteen harnesses 
are required, but it will answer the purpose of illustrating a simple 
explanation of the subject. 

There are two important points to be considered in dealing 
with a design of this kind: first, the nature of the ground fabric; 
and second, the arrangement and disposition of the figures, and the 
determination of the areas they may occupy. 

It will be best first to consider the influence of the ground 
weave and its probable interference with the figure. It should be 
understood that the figure is formed by either the filling floating 



914 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



201 



loosely over the warp, or vice versa. In the illustration shown at 
Fig. 287, the blank squares represent the area occupied by the 
ground weave and the squares which are blocked in represent the 
figure. 

It is apparent that if the filling floats under the squares which 
are blocked in, and over the blank spaces, as is usually the case in 
twilled fabrics, the cloth will be very loose in texture, unless very 
bulky yarn is employed or a large number of threads per inch in 
each direction are used. Even these would not always meet the 
requirements of the case, for a light cloth" could not be made under 
these conditions; and furthermore, the figure would not have that 



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Fig. 288. 



Fig. 289. 



degree of prominence which is so desirable. Therefore, there 
should be a ground weave, and this must be varied according to 
the character or weave of the cloth to be produced. 

For the purpose of making this matter clearer refer to Figs. 
288 and 289. In Fig. 288 the ground weave is plain, as indi- 
cated by the crosses, and it works around the figure in such a 
manner as not to interfere with it, but rather to give it additional 
prominence. Of course, the blocked -in squares and the crosses, in 
the illustration, both represent risers and are merely varied in 
form to show clearly which is the true figure and which is the 
ground. It is perfectly clear that the ground or plain weave 
never comes in contact with the figure, but works around it with- 
out interference, so that the outlines of the figure will be clearly 
defined and the pattern will be perfect. 

To appreciate the significance of the above remarks, refer to 
Fig.. 289. In this design the ground is shown to be a three har- 



915 



202 TEXTILE DESIGN 



ness twill, and it will be seen at once that the figure interferes with 
the clear formation of the main figure, so there could not possibly 
be that sharp, definite form as at Fig. 288. If this pattern were 
made with a four harness cassimere twill for ground, the result 
would be even more disastrous to the prominence which should be 
given the figure. 

From the above, it will be understood that the designer must 
pay particular attention to the ground weave; also that if the 
design is one which is loose in the order of interweaving, there 
should be more material, or the cloth should be finer. In all 
cases, the ground weave must be arranged around the figure in the 
best possible manner considering the size of the figure and the 
form required. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 

1. State generally the reasons why casting out in jacquards 
is resorted to and its effect upon the strucl;ure of cloth which may 
be woven. 

2. Determine on which machine Fig. 285 could be woven 
by casting out the smallest number of hooks. Assume that the 
machine was tied up for ninety threads per inch and find the num- 
ber of threads which could be used per inch. 

3. Find how many hooks would have to be cast out of a 
"four hundred" machine to weave the pattern shown at Fig. 286, 
and the number of threads which could be woven per inch if the 
machine were tied up for sixty threads per inch. 

4. Work out a design similar to that given at Fig. 287, using 
a plain weave for the ground. 

5. Make an original design in which a twill may be used 
for the ground without interfering, to any extent, with the figure. 

Areas. Special attention should now be given to the dis- 
tribution of the main figures and the areas occupied by them. 
The design shown at Fig, 287 represents two parallelograms placed 
side by side in such a position that thej form a square. These 
are placed at right angles to each other in such a manner that 
they form diagonal lines in both directions. (These lines would 
be much more pronounced if the design were repeated several 
times.) 



016 



TEXTILE DESIGN 203 



For many purposes, and more especially for this form of fig- 
ure, this arrangement is an admirable one, but for other purposes 
and other figures this arrangement is not at all suitable. More- 
over, the number of threads occupied by the complete design may 
not be suitable for the number of hooks in a jacquard machine, or 
for the number of hooks being used. For example suppose that 
the design shown at Fig. 288 was to be worked with three hundred 
hooks instead of with three hundred four hooks, which would be 
the case if the ground were a three harness twill as shown at Fig. 
289. The figure, occupying sixteen threads, is not a factor of three 
hundred; that is, it cannot be divided into three hundred with- 
out leaving a remainder, therefore some change would have to be 
made. If the ground weave was a five harness sateen, the same rule 
would apply. 

There is still another difficulty to be overcome; the design 
occupies sixteen threads in each direction and the twill ground 
weave repeats on three threads, which is not a factor of sixteen. 
Therefore the design shown at Fig. 289 cannot be repeated on less 
than forty-eight threads. This creates another difficulty, as forty- 
eight will not divide evenly into three hundred. 

Having conjured up all the difficulties possible, we shall en- 
deavor to explain how easily they may be overcome. It will be 
understood that some change must be made, but ordinarily all 
these difficulties could be met by a slight alteration in the cast out. 
In this instance, however, it will be assumed that the change in 
the distribution of the figures is for the purpose of changing their 
positions in relation to each other. 

The first matter to be taken up is the order of distribution, 
and the next is the space to be allotted. The latter will be depend- 
ent upon the character of the cloth, and the former upon the posi- 
tion in which it is desired to place the figures in relation to each 
other. The form of the figures will in many cases affect their relative 
positions. The most useful methods of distribution and those most 
commonly resorted to are based upon sateen orders. 

To make the foregoing clear, all other considerations should 
be set aside and several methods of distributing the same figure 
should be worked so as to ascertain the effects produced, and to 
determine the methods of procedure. In all probabiHty the 



217 



204 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



altered arrangement would require that the same area should be 
allowed to each figure; that is, there should be the same space sur- 
rounding each figure as there is in the original. Taking this as a 
basis, the number of threads upon which to work must be ascer- 
tained. 

In the design shown at Fig. 287 there are two figures occupy- 
ing sixteen threads and sixteen picks. Sixteen times sixteen equals 
two hundred fifty-six (16 X 16 = 256), therefore the two figures 
occupy two hundred fifty-six small squares, which gives an area 
of one hundred twenty-eight small squares to each figure. Assume 



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Fig. 290. 

now that five figures are to be distributed in sateen order. Then, 
five times one hundred twenty-eight equals six hundred forty (5 X 
128 = 640), or six hundred forty squares will be required for five 
figures similar to those shown at Fig 287. As the original is on 
a square space, the new distribution will be arranged in a square, 
so to find the number of threads and picks the design will occupy 
the square root of 640 should be extracted. This being 25, a 
space upon the design paper of twenty-five squares in each direction 
is marked off. 

This is the area required for five figures similar to those given 
at Fig. 287 to be arranged in five harness sateen order. Before 
placing the figures upon this space, it must be divided into five 
parts in each direction, and when so divided the divisions on one 
side should be numbered in sateen order and the divisions on the 



218 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



205 



bottom numbered in consecutive order. Then suppose eacb of 
these divisions to have lines enclosing a square at the intersection' 
corresponding to the numbers. The process worked up to this 
point is shov^n at Fig. 290. 

From this point the most convenient method of procedure is 
to find the center of the figure or some point as near the center as 
possible. A mark should now be placed at any point within the 
enclosed square and used to represent the center of the intended 
figure, (shown at Fig. 290). Care should be used that whatever 



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Fig. 291. 

position is used for the first figure a corresponding position must 
be selected for each of the others. The figures are now formed 
around this mark. 

The example shown in Fig. 290 serves as a simple illustration 
of the methods employed in determining the area, but it would be 
rather difficult as a first example of the methods employed in 
arranging the order of figures. For this reason, M-e w^ill use the 
same figure as in the previous example and distribute eight figures 
in eight harness sateen order. 

Referring back to the previous example, it is found that one 
figure occupies one hundred twenty-eight squares, so eight figures 



218 



206 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



will occupy 8 X 128 or 1024 squares. Tiie square root of 1024 





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is 32, 60 that the area will be 32 X 32 squares. Marking off this 
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220 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



207 



and numbering these diviblons in consecutive and sateen order we 
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Fig. 294. 
ing points; and in Fig. 293 the design is shown completed with the 
plain weave added for the ground weave. 

Fig. 294 shows another design with the spots arranged in very- 
good order. A, is the spot which must be developed in five end 
sateen order (shown at B) on 40 X 40 squares. Following the 
methods outlined above the design is worked out as shown at C. 



22] 



208 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



A number of ground weaves might be used with good success in 
this design, but to get the best effects a filling flush weave should 
be used, as this would give a greater contrast with the warp figure. 

Arrangement, of Figure. Following the questions of distri- 
bution and the methods of determining the areas, attention must 
be directed to the arrangements most suitable for figures of differ- 
ent forms, for, as suggested, these affect the appearance of the pat- 
tern to a more or less extent, according to the form of the figure. 

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Fig. 295. 

difficulty in forming a suitable arrangement, as almost any form 
will make a very good appearance. Of course, some methods 
would give better results than others, but the ordinary purchaser 
would probably not notice such a small difference. This, however, 
is not the case when dealing with other forms of figures, as in 
many cases the result would be practically valueless as a design. 
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222 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



209 



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Fig. 297. 



210 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



295), allowing each figure the same area as is given in Fig. 295 
and using the same order of distribution, some of the figures will 
overlap each other if their positions are reversed, consequently this 
is an impracticable arrangement. 

The arrangement at Fig. 296 shows six figures placed in the 
best possible order of a broken sateen. Of course, the sateen order 
for six figures must be irregular, but it is very useful for some pur- 
poses. In this case, the figures are almost touching each other. 
Compare this carefully with Fig. 295 in which there is ample space 



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Fig. 298. 

all around the figures, yet the area allowed in each case is practi- 
cally the same. Note also that the plain weave could not be used 
for the ground in Fig. 296 unless every alternate figure were moved 
one thread, so as to prevent interference with the ground weave. 
No arrangement could be made which would be satisfactory, so 
this arrangement may be condemned as impracticable. 

Now study the arrangement given at Fig. 297, which con- 
sists of ten figures in sateen order, and contrast this arrangement 
with the previous example. This arrangement is excellent but it 
presents a very different appearance to the one given at Fig. 295. 



?24 



TEXTILE DESIGN 211 



The figures are closer together at their extremities and enclose a 
larger square of ground cloth. It would, of course, be a matter of 
consideration which of the two would be best suited to the pur- 
pose for which it might be intended, but it is quite clear that neither 
one could be substituted for the other as the appearance of the two 
patterns is so totally different. 

Still another arrangement is given at Fig. 298. It will be 
noted that this consists of eight figures in sateen order. This arrange- 
ment more nearly approaches in appearance Fig. 295. The area 
is distributed in almost the same proportions and one might al- 
most be substituted for the other. There is, however, the same 
fault here as regards the plain weave as at Fig. 296, which arises 
from the manner in which the total space must be divided. The 
area occupied is 36 x 36 squares, which, of course, cannot be divided 
evenly by eight (which is necessary on account of there being eight 
figures), so the divisions must contain four and five squares alter- 
nately. This, of course, makes an irregularity which prevents 
interference. 

The question must be considered as to whether the number of 
threads occupied is suitable for the number of hooks employed in a 
jacquard machine. Figs. 295, 296, 297, and 298 occupy such widely 
different numbers, with the exception of Figs. 295 and 298, that 
they could not be worked on the same machine, so the designer 
would have to take this into consideration in determining which of 
the arrangements it would be best to adopt. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 

1. If two figures occupy three hundred thirty small squares, 
what is the area of each figure? 

2. Make an original design with five figures arranged so that 
a plain ground weave may be used. 

3. Make designs for five, eight, and ten figures, using a figure 
similar to the one in Fig. 294. 

4. How would you proceed to distribute figures in sateen 
order? 

5. Why should a filling flush ground weave be used in a design 
where the figure is formed by the warp? 



8g5 



212 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



Figures Formed With Both Warp and Filling, Attention 
must now be directed to another feature which is always present 
in the arrangement of small figures, and for the purpose of explain- 
ing this thoroughly the figures given represent the most difficult 
type of patterns. 

In designing figured goods, it is quite common to have figures 
formed with both warp and filling at the same time, and not with 
but one material, as is the case in all previous examples. In this 
case it is essential that the figures be so arranged that there will 
be no possibility of the pattern forming stripes in any direction; 
in other words, that there shall be perfect distribution. Take for 



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Fig. 299. 

example Fig. 299, and assume that the warp' and filling are differ- 
ent colors, say black and white, and that the solid black squares of 
the design represent where the warp comes to the surface, while 
the circles represent where the filling comes to the surface. 

It will be noted at once that were cloth woven from this, 
design, the result would be alternate stripes of black and red run- 
ning in the direction of the warp. The form of the figure J;ends 
to make this defect more prominent. It must be assumed that 
the filling figure and the warp figure are placed at right angles 
to each other and must always be in the same relative position to 
form one figure. For the purpose of alternately placing the fig- 
ures in reversed positions, and following the plan adopted in pre- 
vious lessons, the whole figure may be supposed to be contained in 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



213 



a parallelogram, as shown by the crosses. If this is done and the 
figures are turned upon their centers, the two figures are appar- 
ently placed in their proper positions; however, this is not the case 
as the filling figures will overlap each other to a large extent, while 
the warp figures also will overlap slightly. 

The cause of this is at once apparent from the form and posi- 




Fig. 300. 

tion of the two portions of the figure in their relation to the par- 
allelogfam. Thus it will be seen that the arrangement of the fig- 
ures is very imperfect, while the forjn of the figure also may be 
improved. In this arrangement of the two figures the parallelo- 
grams are placed as near to each other as possible, thus tending to 
increase the difficulties when other orders of arrangement are re- 
sorted to. 

We will now take up the suitabiHty of other orders of ar- 



?37 



214 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



rangement. In Fig. 300 the arrangement consists of five spots in 
sateen order, which is repeated four times, so as to obtain the best 
order of reversing the figures. This arrangement is far superior 
to the one shown at Fig. 299, and for many designs of this class is 
very suitable, but it is not perfect, as indeed no order of arrange- 
ment could be with this type of figure. 

It will be noted that the filling portion of the figures, which 
are indicated by crosses, come together in pairs. This in itself is 
not necessarily objectionable, in faict, in some cases it gives a good 
effect to the pattern, but on examining the design closely the 




Fig. 301. 

appearance suggests the formation of a diagonal pattern. This 
might be considered an objectionable feature and must carefully be 
kept in view. It need not in all cases be looked upon as a defect, 
but should be guarded against in such cases where it might be con- 
sidered defective. 

The design shown at Fig. 301 shows an arrangement of eight 
figures alternated in pairs. The result of this arrangement is to 
form groups of three figures, with the filling portions coming 
together, and two figures which are isolated from the groups. It 
requires but a glance to see that in this design a distinct stripe 
would be formed in the cloth, as at some points only the warp 
cpm^s to the surface over Si, nuniber of threads, and at other points 



2^ 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



215 



there is a great preponderance of filling. Other orders of arrange- 
ment of eight figures might be adopted, but there would be faults 
of one kind or another, and most likely stripes would be formed. 
If an attempt be made to arrange ten figures in sateen order 
in a small area, the figures will overlap each other, but if the area 
be increased, good arrangements may be made. As previously 
stated, the areas in these examples have been reduced to the lowest 
possible point, so as to increase the 'difliculties and thereby assist 
in making clear the defects which are inseparable from this class of 
designs. A slight increase in the area would remove many of the 
difiiculties, but they would still exist to some extent. 



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Fig. 302. 

Figures Not Square. In the previous examples, the number 
of threads and picks have been equal, but there are some forms of 
figures which should not occupy a square space. If the figure 
shown at Eig, 302 were placed on the same number of threads 
and picks, the result would be most unsatisfactory, as will be shown 
later. When the form of the figure is such that when laid upon 
design paper more threads than picks are occupied, or vice versa/ 
and when two figures alternate in the manner shown at Fig. 302, 
the space occupied by each figure should be a parallelogram of the 
character shown in the illustration. If this were not so, the fig- 
ures would overlap at the ends, or there would be a clear blank 
space between them, caused by one terminating before the other 
commenced. 

If this rule applies to the space occupied by two figures, it 



25?3 



216 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



should also apply for any number of figures. This shows the neces- 
sity of a rule to calculate the area for any other number of figures 
than two, and to determine the respective number of threads and 
picks to be occupied. 

There are two methods which might be adopted for ascertain- 
ing these particulars. The first one is to find the total number of 
small squares occupied, in the same manner as if the area were to 
be a small space. To illustrate this, take Fig. 302 as an example. 
There are thirty threads and twenty-four picks occupied by two 




Fig. 303. 

figures. Multiplying these together we find that 720 small squares 
are required for two figures, which is equivalent to 360 squares for 
each figure. If five figures were to be distributed 1800 small squares 
would be required (360 X 5 = 1800). 

■ To find the number of threads and picks required it would be 
necessary to treat the matter as a problem in proportion, as follows: 
30 : 24 : : 1800 : 1440. Tlie square root of 1440 is 38, so there 
will be 38 picks required. 

To find the number of warp threads the problem would be 
24: 30:: 1800 : 2250. The square root of 2250 is 48, so there 
would be 48 threads required. To prove the above, the number of 
warp and filling threads may be multiplied together. 38 X 48 = 
1824, the slight difference being due to the use of full numbers instea'''-' 
of fractions. 



?3p 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



217 



The second method is to square each set of threads separately- 
and treat the problem in the manner shown on Page 203. Follow- 
ing this method the threads would be: 30 X 30 = 900 ~- 2 = 
450. For five figures, 450 X 5 = 2250, which when the square 
root is extracted gives 48 warp threads. 

The picks would be fouud in the same manner 24 X 24 = 
576 -^- 2 = 288. For five figures, 288 X 5 = 1440, the square 
root of which is 38, the sa,me as obtained by the first method. 

A design for eight figures is shown at Fig. 303. The design 
is extended in the same manner as in previous lessons, so as to 




Fig. 304. 

alternate the figures. Fig, 304 shows a design of ten figures car- 
ried out in the same manner. 

A feature of these designs is the different order of arrange- 
ment. This must be studied in order to master the principles of 
making designs of this nature. It will be excellent practice for 
the student to use the figure shown in these illustrations to form a 
design on a square space, comparing the results obtained with 
these illustrations. 

Diagonals. With a view to dealing with patterns which run 
all over the cloth it will be helpful to consider the arrangement of 



2S1 



218 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



figures which run in a diagonal direction, as in /nost cases this 
class of patterns has some definite order of arrangoroent as its base. 
The illustration at Fig. 305 shows a simple diagonal design 
which repeats on thirty threads and thirty picks. In a design 
of this kind, the tir^t matter which requires attention is the deter- 
mination of a complete pattern. This is governed by the relation-- 
ship of the figure running between the diagonals and the total num- 
ber of threads occupied by the diagonal. A diagonal pattern run- 
ning across the paper at an angle of forty-five degrees must occupy 
exactly the same number of threads in each direction, and if 



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Fig. 305. 

extended beyond the number of threads necessary for a repeat, 
there must be a complete repetition or the pattern will not join 
properly. It is just as essential that the figure also should join 
perfectly. 

There is one point here to which particular attention is called, 
so as to facilitate a thorough understanding of the reasons which 
will be given for determining the completion of the patterns. 
Knowing that the diagonal must occupy a square space, it is quite 
immaterial whether the threads are counted in a horizontal, ver- 
tical, or diagonal direction, but with the fancy figures running 
between the diagonal lines, this is not the case, as it is repeated 



282 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



219 



continuously in a diagonal direction only, therefore, it can be 
counted only in the direction in which it runs. 

Referring to Fig. 306, it will be readily seen that there is no 




Fig. 806. 

possibility of counting the distance from one figure to another, 
except in a diagonal line, because there is no repetition in either a 
horizontal or vertical direction, until the whole design is com- 
pleted. It should be understood that the moaning of the distance 
from one figure to another, in a diagonal direction, does not mean 



233 



220 TEXTILE DESIGN 



the open space between one figure and the next, but it does mean 
the distance from any point in one pattern to the same relative 
point in the next repeat of the pattern. This is indicated by the 
diamond shaped space in the figure. 

If the design shown at Fig. 305 be counted, it will be found to 
occupy fifteen threads from the center of one diamond shaped figure 
to the center of the next similar figure, and as the diagonal occupies 
thirty threads each way, and as fifteen is half of that number, the 
figure is repeated twice within the square occupied by the diag- 
onal, consequently there is no difiiculty. But a reference to Fig. 
306 will show that the figure occupies twelve threads, and as 
twelve will not divide "evenly into thirty, the design must be car- 
ried to a greater extent before arriving at a point where the figure 
is complete. 

Referring back to the statement made above to the effect that 
if the diagonal is carried beyond one complete pattern it must be 
carried to another complete pattern, it will be understood why the 
design does not repeat on a smaller area. In this instance, the 
design must be extended to occupy sixty squares in one direction 
or the other. 

The foregoing may be stated in this form: Both the figure 
and the diagonal must be continued until a number of squares has 
■been reached into which both the number of squares occupied by 
the diagonal and the number of squares occupied by the figure will 
divide without leaving a remainder. In this case when the diag- 
onal has been repeated twice, the number of picks occupied will be 
sixty, and as twelve will divide into sixty, the design is complete 
on- that number. 

Assuming that the number of threads from a point in the one 
figure to a similar point in the next figure was fourteen instead of 
twelve, it would be necessary to carry the design to the extent of 
two hundred ten squares in one direction and thirty squares in the 
other. If the distance between similar points was tliirteen threads, 
the design would require three hundred ninety squares in one 
direction. 



234 




MASON DOBBY WITH CAPACITY FOR 24 HARNESSES 

Mason Machine Co. 



TEXTILE DESIGN 

PART V 



GAUZE AND LENO 

The principle of crossing one set of warp threads over a second 
set of warp threads — or cross-weaving, as it is commonly termed — 
represents the last and perhaps the highest type of woven-fabric 
structure. Cross-woven fabrics may easily be distinguished from 
fabrics belonging to other divisions of woven cloth by their charac- 
teristic lace-like texture; in fact, they are termed the connecting link 
between ordinary woven cloth and lace. 

In order to avoid confusion, the whole range of fabrics in which 
one or more of the warp threads are crossed will be classified as cross- 
woven fabrics; and this general heading will be subdivided into 'plain 
gauze, full gauze, and leno fabrics. 

PLAIN GAUZE 

Construction. The simplest kind of gauze or cross- weaving is 
termed "plain gauze." Fig. 307 shows the manner in which the 
threads interlace, the upper diagram being a plan of the cloth, and 
the lower diagram showing a sectional cut. It will readily be seen 
that there are two sets of warp threads and one set of filHng threads. 
The warp threads marked A are termed ground threads, and those 
marked B are crossing threads. The filling threads are marked H. 
The straight warp thread A is always under the filling, while the 
crossing thread B is raised over every pick of filling. The crossing 
thread passes under the straight warp thread between every two picks; 
being interwoven on the right side of the straight or ground thread at 
one pick, and on the left side at the next pick. As the plain gauce 
weave repeats on two picks, the third and fourth picks are a repetition 
of the first and second. 

To produce this effect, a special arrangement of harnesses and 
heddles is required. The ground thread A will, of course, require 
one harness, while the crossing thread B will require a harness to lift 



237 



222 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



it on one side of the ground thread and a standard and doup to lift it 
on the other side of the ground thr-j'ad. The standard and doup are 
shown in Fig. 308; and for comparison, a regular heddle — such as is 
used on the harness for the ground thread — is shown in Fig. 309. The 
standard and doup is a combination of a regular harness and a half- 
harness. 

Standard and Doup. The doup is a silk or linen cord made in 
the form of a loop and attached to the lower frame of a harness shaft. 
Referring to Fig. 308, it will be noted that one end of the cord is 

BA BA BA 




Fig. 307. 

fastened to the frame at 3, while the other end is passed through the 
eye of the standard heddle at 4. It is then passed back through the 
space 5, which is above the eye, and fastened to the frame at 3. The 
crossing thread is drawn through the doup as shown by the sectional 
cut 6. 

Fig. 310 shows the threads drawn through the harnesses and 
illustrates the method of crossing the thread B to the doup and stand- 
ard harness. Two ground harnesses and a standard and doup are 
required to weave plain gauze. The warp is first drawn in on the two 
harnesses marked 1 and 2, then the crossing thread B is passed under 
the ground thread A and through the loop formed by the doup and 
standard harness. The two threads are then drawn in the same dent 
in the reed. This operation is repeated for every pair of threads in the 
warp. 

As the method of drawing in the warp threads is the fundamental 



238 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



223 



principle of cross weaving, it is essential that it be thoroughly under- 
stood before any designs can be made ; therefore, it will be explained 
in a different manner, as follows: There are two sets of harnesses. 
The back set consists of two regular harnesses through which the 
warp is drawn as required for plain cloth. These are marked 1 and 
2. The front set consists of a standard harness S, which is the same 
in every way as an ordinary harness, and a skeleton or doup harness 
D. The first thread A is a ground thread and is drawn through the 
harness 1, while the second thread B is a crossing thread and is drawn 

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Fig. 308. 



Fig. 309. 



through the harness 2. ' The second thread B is then passed under 
the first thread A and drawn through the doup, the two threads being 
drawn in through the same dent in the reed. Therefore, all the odd- 
numbered threads are ground threads, and all the even-numbered 
threads are crossing threads. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid on t'-^e statement that each 
pair of threads should be drawn in the same dent in the reed, for it is 
evident that if they are crossed behind the reed and drawn through 
different dents, the crossing could not take place in the cloth. 



289 



224 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



It follows that with the arrangement given above the crossing 
thread B is capable of receiving movement at two places; i. e., at C 
and at E. If lifted at E, by raising the standard and doup, the 
thread will be drawn on one side of the ground thread A, while if 

lifted at C by the harness 2, it will be 
lifted on the other side of A, or parallel 
to it. 

But it will be understood that if C 
is raised, the crossing thread must 
raise at E, or in other words, it must 
be released at E, to form the shed for 
the shuttle to pass through. This is 
shown at Fig. 311. The crossing 
thread B is lifted by the harness 2, and 
the doup also is lifted, which allows E 
to slide up through the standard hed- 
dle with the result that the crossing 
thread B is parallel to the ground 
thread A, instead of being crossed un- 
der it. H shows the filling which was 
put into the cloth when the threads 
were crossed. 

The formation of the cross shed 
(the one in which pick H is placed 
in Fig. 311) is shown at Fig. 312. It 
has already been explained that the 
standard and doup must be raised to 
cross the threads. The harnesses 1 
and 2 are down and the crossing thread 
B is raised at the point E. 

These two movements represent the whole principle of cross 
weaving and if thoroughly understood will make the explanations of 
the more generally used and more useful leno fabrics, which are given 
later on, seem very simple indeed. 

As may be seen by referring to Fig. 312 there is a great strain on 
the crossing thread B when the standard and doup are lifted, by reason 
of its being passed under the ground thread A. To ease this strain 
there is an attachment placed on the loom for "easing" the crossing 




Fig. 310. 



240 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



225 



threads on this pick, but as this work does not assume to cover the 
processes of weaving we shall not take up any more of that subject 
than is necessary for a thorough explanation of cloth construction and 
designing. 

The harness chain and the drawing in draft for plain gauze is 
shown at Fig. 313. Letters D and S and numbers 1 and 2 illustrate 




Fig. 311. 

the harnesses shown in Figs. 310, 311, and 312, and the crosses indicate 
which harnesses the threads are drawn through. The ground thread 
A is drawn through the harness 1 (also shown in Figs. 310, 311, and 
312), as indicated by the cross, and the crossing thread B is drawn 
through the back harness 2, then crossed under the thread A and 
drawn through the doup. 



24} 



226 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



For the first pick the doup harness and the crossing harness (or 
No. 2 in the diagrams) are raised, so the ground and crossing threads 
lie in a parallel position. On the second pick the doup and standard 
harnesses are raised, so, of course, the crossing thread is drawn under 
the ground thread to the other side. The third pick is the same as the 
first, and the fourth pick is like the second. 

FULL GAUZE 

Construction. In plain gauze, all the crossing threads work in 
the same direction; every crossing thread is exactly like every other 

crossing thread, the pattern 
repeating on one ground thread 
and one crossing thread. In full 

BA BA BA 




a CD 

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oRD „ 

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Fig. 313. 



gauze, two crossing threads and 
two ground threads are required 
for a repeat; ojie crossing thread 
being drawn to the left of the 
ground thread and the other be- 
ing drawn to the right. The 
ground threads weave in the 
same manner as in plain gauze. 
The illustration in Fig. 314 is a plan of full gauze, and by com- 
paring it with Fig. 307 the difference between the two cloths may be 
observed. In plain gauze all the crossing threads pass under the 
ground threads to the right on the same pick, and pass back to the 
left of the ground thread on the next pick. In full gauze the first 
crossing thread passes under the ground thread to the left, while the 



e A 

Fig. 312. 



242 



TEXTILE DESIGN 227 




second crossing thread passes under the next ground thread to the 
right, on the same pick. On the next pick both crossing threads 
return to their original positions. 

The illustration shown in Fig. 315 represents the drawing-in or 
harness draft, harness chain, and the manner of crossing the crossing 
thread under the ground thread to the doup, also the plan of a full 
gauze cloth. The first thread is a ground 
thread and is drawn in on the ground har- -- -^ ^- ^^ 

ness G. The second thread is a crossing 
thread and is drawn in on the back harness 
C, which is the crossing harness. The 
second thread is then passed under the first 
thread to the left, and drawn through the 
doup, D. The third thread also is a cross- 
ing thread so is drawn through the back har- 
ness C. The fourth thread is a ground 
thread so is drawn in on the ground harness 
G. The third thread is then passed under 
the fourth thread to the right and drawn through the doup. This is 
a full repeat of the draft. 

When drawing the threads through the reed it will, of course, be 
necessary to draw the first and second threads in one dent, and to 
draw the third and fourth threads in another dent, or, as explained in 
Plain Gauze, no crossing can take place. The effect of this cloth is 
that one crossing thread crosses to the right and the other to the left 
on one pick, and this order is reversed on the next pick. 

This style of weaving is more effective if heavy, or rather coarse, 
filling is used. Different sizes of warp used alternately or in any 
systematic method is also very useful in the production of many fancy 
effects on this weave. 

The harness chain shows how the harnesses are lifted to give 
the effect. For the first pick the crossing threads are on the doup side 
of the ground threads so the standard and doup are lifted. For the 
second pick the crossing threads are parallel to the ground threads, so 
the back or crossing harness and the doup are lifted. The third pick 
is like the first, and the fourth is like the second. 

This is exactly the same as the previous example, except that in 
the plain gauze figure the plan commences with the crossing thread 



243 



228 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



parallel to the ground thread. Thus the only difference between 
plain gauze and full gauze is that in the latter the threads cross in 
opposite directions. This result is caused by having the doup and 
standard at the left of every alternate ground thread and at the right 
of the other ground threads. 

LENO DESIGNS 

The combination of gauze and other methods of interweaving 
is perhaps where the greatest value of cross weaving lies. If plain 
gauze and full gauze are thoroughly mastered, their combination with 

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Fig 315. 

Other weaves to form leno effects will not prove a difficult subject. 
The illustration shown in Fig. 316 has been selected as an example of 
a simple leno effect. 

Comparing Figs. 313 and 316 the following similarities and 
differences between plain gauze and leno may be noted : The same 
number and order of harnesses are used, and the method of drawing 
in the warp threads and crossing them is practically the same. In 
Fig. 316 the crossing threads have been crossed to the left, but this is 
not a serious difference as the crossing threads in Fig. 313 could be 
crossed in the same manner. Thus the same arrangement of threads 
and method of drawing-in is used-. The plan of the cloth, however, is 
different, so the method of lifting the harnesses also must be different. 

The harness chain shows that the standard and doup are raised 
for the first pick, which of course raises the crossing thread over the 
first pick of filling and on the doup side of the ground thread. On the 
second pick the ground harness only is hfted, and the crossing thread 
passes under the filling while the ground thread passes ov§r it, On 



944 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



229 



the third pick the standard and doup are again Uf ted ; thus raising the 
crossing thread over the filhng. 

The crossing and ground threads have thus woven plain cloth 
for the first three picks. On the fourth pick the crossing harness and 
doup are raised which draws the. crossing thread under the ground 
thread to the other side, where it passes over the filling. The next 



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Fig. 316. 

four picks are repeats of the first four. The crossing thread is on the 
right side of the ground thread for only one pick, and weaves plain 
on the left side for the remaining three picks; thus forming a leno 
design by combining plain weaving with plain gauze. 

Attention is called to the fact that the crossing thread passes 
over picks 3 and 1, which are on each side of pick 4, where the crossing 
takes place. If this were not done the gauze crossing would not be 
so clear and decisive. It may be taken as a general rule for leno 
designs that to have an uneven number of picks for plain work between 
the gauze crossings is convenient as it will allow the crossing thread 
to be raised over the picks on each side of the gauze crossings. This 
is not absolutely necessary and may not be followed in all cases, but 
it is a safe rule to follow for the. present. 

The illustrations shown in Figs. 317 and 318 are variations of the 
principle of combining the plain weave with gauze. 

In Fig. 317 the usual arrangement of harnesses is used and the 
crossing threads are passed under the ground threads to the left, and 
drawn through the doups in the usual manner, 



245 



230 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



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Referring to the harness chain, the first pick shows that the 
crossing and doup harnesses are raised, which of course weaves the 
crossing thread on the right of the ground thread. On the second 
pick the standard and doup are raised, which weaves the crossing 
thread on the left or doup side of the ground thread. The third and 
fourth picks are the same as the first and second, while the fifth also 

is hke the first. On the sixth pick 
the ground harness only is raised, 
so the crossing thread is under the 
filling. The seventh and ninth 
picks are the same as the first and 
the eighth is like the sixth. 

Up to this point there have 
been four gauze crossings, and five 
picks on which the threads have 
woven plain. The tenth, eleventh, 
twelfth, and thirteenth picks show 
crossings, and the plain weave 
effect is given on the remaining five 
picks, but the crossing thread is on 
the left of the ground thread. 

Fig. 318 shows the crossing 
threads weaving plain on the left of 
the ground thread for three picks 
and then changing over to the right 
for three picks, the pattern repeat- 
ing on six picks. The pattern chain 
shows how this is accomplished. 
The explanation will not be re- 
peated for this design as it is the 
same as in Figs. 316 and 317. 

The next question is the power of producing a variety of designs 
upon the harnesses employed, and with as little trouble as possible by 
using one doup. It is very clear that if a crossing can be produced 
so readily, that is, if a gauze crossing can be obtained by the simple 
lifting of the doup once on each side of the ground thread, there must 
be a wide field for varying the design, and that the characteristic 
openness of gauze and leno fabrics can be infinitely varied. 



\ 



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Fig. 317. 



946 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



231 



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1 1 

■ 1 

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The designs explained up to this point have been ones that would 
make stripes of plain and gauze across the cloth only. This will be 
varied and the designs produced which will make patterns in the 
direction of the warp. 

Fancy Leno Designs. There are two methods of forming fancy 
leno designs, which are as follows; first,wheTe the figure is formed 
by gauze on a plain ground; and second, where the figure is formed 
by plain on a gauze ground. This, however, important as it is, must 
be considered secondary to the ar- 
rangement of patterns for as few 
doups as possible. The signifi- 
cance of this statement is at once 
apparent when it is remembered 
that, among other complications, 
each doup must have an easing 
arrangement to reduce the strain 
caused by the raised position of the 
standard and doup. 

The illustration shown in Fig. 
319 represents a design that forms 
a diagonal pattern of gauze across 
the fabric; and also shows the drawing-in draft and harness chain. 
The usual method of allowing each thread to work in its normal 
position, when plain cloth is desired, is adopted, and the crossing 
thread is lifted by the standard and doup when the gauze crossing is 
required. By using this method, four doups and four standards are 
used with eight ground and crossing harnesses. 

This seems a large number of harnesses for a simple pattern, 
especially as there are more harnesses than there are threads in one 
repeat of the pattern. The number of harnesses, doups, and easing 
rods would be much more formidable than the pattern, but they are 
all required to produce the actual effect shown in the figure, because 
each pair of threads works independently and in no case do two 
threads cross at the same time. 

The first doup and standard marked D^ and S^ and the first 
crossing and ground harnesses marked C^ and G^ may be referred to 
independently of the remainder of the chain and it will be a simple 
matter to see how the harnesses are raised for the first pair of threads. 



Fig. 318. 



247 



232 



.TEXTILE DESIGN 



On the first pick the first standard and doup are lifted and the first 
crossing and ground harnesses are down, which, of course, crosses 
the thread to the doup side of the ground thread. Reference to the 
plan will show this to be the case for the first crossing thread is crossed 
to the right side of the first ground thread on the first pick. On the 
second pick the doup and crossing harness are raised, which changes 
the crossing thread to the left again, as explained in previous examples. 
So each pair of threads may be followed in the plan and in the harness 
chain independent of the other threads. 

Examining the standard and doup S^ and D^ in conjunction with 
the crossing and ground harnesses C^ and G^, the manner of lifting 
the harnesses for the second pair of threads may be followed. Each 



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Fig. 319. 

of the remaining two pairs of threads may be followed in the same 
manner by considering them the only threads in the pattern, and 
their respective harnesses the only ones in the harness chain for the 
time being. It will be understood that in this pattern each pair of 
threads requires its individual doup, standard, crossing, and ground 
harnesses, just as the first example of leno required them. 

To show how an effect which is practically the same and which 
is certainly as good, may be produced with one doup and standard. 
Fig. 320 has been prepared. 



248 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



233 



A hasty comparison of Figs. 319 and 320 might not show any 
difference in the two designs ; both have the standard and doup lifted 
over the odd-numbered picks, and the gauze crossings form a sort 
of diagonal running from left to right. The plain weave is used on 
all the threads and picks, except where the crossings take place, as 
may be proved by examining the picks. 

On the first pick all the threads are working plain — i. e., one up, 
one down — ^except the first pair. All the threads are working plain 



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Fig. 320. 

on the second pick, just as in a piece of plain cotton cloth. On the 
third pick the second pair of threads form a gauze crossing, the others 
weaving plain. The fourth pick is plain ; and so on. 

In all the above details, the two designs are identical, yet one 
requires four standards and four doups, and the other is woven on 
one standard and one doup; consequently, there must be some method 
of arranging the designs and lifting the harness to reduce the number 
of standards and doups necessary. 

The ground and crossing threads in Fig. 320 are drawn through 
the harnesses in the usual manner, the crossing thread being drawn 
to the right the same as in Fig. 319. However, the crossing thread 
is at the right of the ground thread when weaving plain, and changes 
to the le]t to form the gauze crossing; while the crossing thread is at 



234 TEXTILE DESIGN 



the left of the ground thread when weaving plain in Fig. 319, and 
crosses to the right to form a gauze crossing. 

The side on which the crossing thread weaves when making the 
plain cloth is of no importance so far as the appearance of the design 
is concerned, but it makes a difference of three doups and standards 
if woven on the same side as the crossing harness, as will be noted 
by a careful comparison of the two illustrations; consequently, it is 
impracticable to make a design Uke Fig, 319, and use sixteen harnesses 
for its production, when the same effect may be produced on ten 
harnesses. 

Analyzing Fig. 320 in conjunction with the harness chain, it will 
be noted that the doup, first crossing harness, and the second, third, 
and fourth ground harnesses are raised on the first pick, which has the 
effect of drawing the first crossing thread to the left of the first ground 
thread (which in this instance is the same side as the crossing harness) 
and raising the second, third, and fourth ground threads, as shown 
in the first pick of the plan of cloth. 

If the previous explanations have been thoroughly studied, the 
reason why this is the case will be apparent, but as the construction of 
leno design is so much different than other divisions it may be profit- 
able to repeat the explanation. 

Each ground and crossing thread should be looked upon as a 
pair of threads, so to speak, and in determining how they are worked, 
the harnesses on which they are drawn should be considered quite 
apart from the other harnesses. On the first pick of the harness chain 
the first crossing harness and the doup are Hfted. There are other 
harnesses lifted on this pick, but these have no connection with the 
first pair of ground and crossing threads, so should be ignored for 
the present. As is stated above the first crossing harness and the 
doup are raised, which has the effect of hfting the crossing thread on 
the same side of the ground thread as the crossing harness is on, as 
explained in plain gauze. 

Considering the second pair of threads, the ground thread is 
raised, and the crossing thread is down, so the second crossing harness 
is not lifted while the second ground harness is Hfted, as is shown in 
the harness chain. The third and fourth pairs of threads are the 
same as the second; the third and fourth ground harnesses being lifted 
and the crossing harnesses being down. 



250 




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TEXTILE DESIGN 



235 



The second pick weaves plain, passing over every ground thread 
and under every crossing thread. Reference to the second pick of 
the chain shows that the standard and doup are lifted and all the 
ground and crossing harnesses are down. In the explanation of 
plain gauze, a statement is made to the effect that where the standard ' 
and doup are lifted, the crossing threads are raised over the fiUing, and 
.on the doup side of the ground thread. The plan of the cloth shows 
this to be the case. 



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On the third pick the first ground thread is raised and the first 
crossing thread is down. The second pair of threads forms a gauze 
crossing in the same manner as the first pair of threads formed a 
crossing on the first pick. The third and fourth pairs of threads are 
weaving plain. Reference to the third pick of the chain shows that 
the doup, first ground harness, second crossing harness, third ground 
harness, and fourth ground harness are raised. A careful study will 
reveal that the gauze crossing is made by the same method explained 
in connection with the crossing on the first pick and also in Plain 



251 



236 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



Gauze; i. e., the crossing harness and doup being raised, raises the 
crossing thread on the side that the crossing harness is on. 

The fourth pick is the same as the second, passing over every 
ground thread and under every crossing thread, the standard and 
doup being the only harnesses that are raised. 

The third and fourth pairs of threads form gauze crossings on 
the fifth and seventh picks respectively, by having their crossing 
harnesses raised in conjunction with the doup, in the same manner as 



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Fig. 322. 



explained in connection with the first and second pairs of threads. 
The sixth and eighth picks are plain. 

Summarizing the above, every even-numbered pick weaves plain 
with the warp threads, and on the odd-numbered picks gauze crossings 
are made in progressive order. The crossing threads are always on 
the right or doup side of the ground threads when weaving plain and 
cross to the crossing thread side, or what was termed the 'position 
•parallel to the ground thread in the simple explanation used in the 
Plain Gauze. 



252 



TEXTILE DESIGN 237 



To establish more forcibly the possibility of reducing the number 
of harnesses employed for an effect, when apparently the number of 
harnesses cannot be reduced, Figs. 321 and 322 have been prepared. 
This is almost a parallel case to the one just explained. Fig. 321 
occupies sixteen harnesses, and practically the same effect is shown in 
Fig. 322 on ten harnesses. Both effects are the same, except that the 
threads weave plain with the crossing thread on the right or doup side 
in Fig. 322, while they weave plain with the crossing thread on the 
crossing harness side in Fig. 321. 

It will be unnecessary to go into the details of these two designs, 
as the comparison may be made by the same method used on the two 
previous figures. Examples of this kind might be multiplied, but in 
the estimation of the writer this method has been made very clear by 
these explanations. Further examples will be made with as few doups 
and standards as possible, as in practical use the doups are a source 
of considerable expense for repairs, and complicate the weaving 
operation. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 

1. How do cross- woven fabrics differ from ordinary woven 
cloths? 

2. Describe the interlacings.of the warp threads in both plain 
gauze and full gauze. 

3. How are the crossings of the warp threads held in place, or 
bound into the fabric? 

4. Write a description of the doup including the following 
features: Of what material is it made? How is it connected with 
the standard harness? Why could not an ordinary heddle be used 
in its place? 

5. Make a sketch illustrative of the method of drawing in the 
crossing and ground harnesses for full gauze. 

6. When reeding a warp, what must receive special attention? 
Why is this necessary? 

7. What effect is produced by lowering the crossing thread and 
lifting the standard and doup? 

8. Make from memory enlarged diagrams of plain gauze and 
of full gauze. 

9. By what is the power of producing fancy patterns limited? 



253 



238 TEXTILE DESIGN 



10. In plain work between gauze crossing, should an odd or an 
even number of picks be used? 

Diamond Patterns, The diagonal pattern, formed by the use 
of one doup and standard, does not limit the variety of fancy effects 
possible on this arrangement, for with the possibilities of one doup and 
standard in mind, one may lay out a practically unlimited number of 
patterns. 

The structure of the cloth is limited to plain gauze and the regular 
plain weave, and it is necessary to lift the standard and doup on every 
alternate pick and to Hft the doup on the other picks so that gauze 
or plain may be formed, as desired, by lifting either the crossing or 
ground harness of each pair of threads in conjunction with the doup. 
Particular attention is called to this, so that the student will not 
think that the range of patterns made with one doup and standard is 
unlimited. Extensive and elaborate designs may be made, as shown 
in the illustrations, but they bear a marked similarity to each other, 
compared to the infinite number of leno effects that may be made 
on more complicated arrangements of the harnesses. For instance, 
one of the most valuable methods adopted by the leno designer to get 
special fancy effects, is to have more than one pick in the same shed. 
This cannot be done in the one-doup-one-standard arrangement. 

There are innumerable other characteristic features of cross 
weaving thatare not practical on the present arrangement; therefore, 
it may be stated that the number of patterns, which are possible on 
one doup and one standard combined with any number of ground and 
crossing harnesses, is practically unlimited, yet the construction of the 
cloth must be confined to plain gauze and plain cloth, and composed 
of a warp or filling figure, if a figure is desired. If a filHng figure were 
being produced, a special arrangement must be made, such as weaving 
the cloth wrong side up. This is often resorted to, yet in some cases 
the doup is reversed to weave the pattern right side up. By reversing 
the doup is meant to have the cord hanging down from a harness 
placed above the yarn instead of below, as is the common custom. 

Perhaps the simplest form of figure next to those of the diagonal 
character, are the ones in which a diamond outhne in gauze is formed. 
An example of this effect is shown in Fig. 323. The gauze cloth runs 
diagonally in each direction, and encloses a diamond-shaped space of 
plain cloth. Of course, if the design were repeated a number of 



394 



m 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



239 



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23- 
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Fig. 323. 



255 



240 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



times, the figure would be more plainly visible, but little difficulty will 
be experienced in recognizing the outline of the figure. The design 
repeats on twenty-four threads and twenty-four picks. 

The method of producing these diamond effects is very simple, 
being a further utilization of the principles employed in Figs. 319 and 
320. The ground threads are drawn in on the ground harnesses and 
the crossing threads are drawn in on the crossing harnesses, as indi- 
cated by the crosses. Each crossing thread is then passed under its 





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Fig. 324. 

companion ground thread (to the right in this instance) and drawn 
through the doup. Each pair of threads is then drawn through the 
same dent as previously explained. 

The harness chain is shown in Fig. 324. The doup, standard, 
crossing, and ground harnesses are marked in the manner adopted for 
previous examples, and the picks in the chain correspond to the picks 
in the plan. The circles are always on the crossing harnesses' and 
indicate where a gauze crossing takes place. On every pick where a 
circle is found the doup also is lifted, so the crossing thread crosses 
over to the left of the ground thread. A careful examination of the 
disposition of the circles will show an outline like that formed in the 
plan by the gauze crossings. 

Analyzing the harness chain in Fig. 324 in conjunction with the 
plan in Fig. 323, the following particulars are found. On the first 
pick of the chain the standard and doup are lifted, which, of course, 



256 



TEXTILE DESIGN 241 



raises the crossing threads over the fiUing and on the doup side of the 
ground thread. None of the ground harnesses is hfted so the first pick 
is perfectly plain, passing over every ground thread and under every 
crossing thread. 

On the second pick of the chain, the doup is lifted, also the first, 
second, arid twelfth crossing harnesses. This, of course, draws those 
threads to the left of the ground threads and over the filling. In the 
remaining pairs of threads: i. e., the third to eleventh, inclusive, the 
ground threads pass over the filling and the crossing threads pass under 
it. Reference to the chain shows that the ground harness in each of 
these pairs is raised, and that the crossing harness is down ; therefore, 
there are three gauze crossings (made by three crossings harnesses 
and the doup being Hfted) and nine pairs or eighteen threads weav- 
ing plain, on the second pick. 

On the third pick the standard and doup only are lifted, the 
same as in the first pick, and of course with the same result; the fiUing 
passing over every ground thread and under every crossing thread, 
and the crossing threads being on the doup side of the ground thread. 

The fourth pick shows gauze crossings on the second, third, 
eleventh, and twelfth pairs of threads, the remaining threads weaving 
plain. Reference to the chain shows that the second and third, and 
eleventh and twelfth crossing harnesses are lifted in conjunction with 
the doup, which of course forms gauze crossings. The first, and the 
fourth to the tenth, inclusive, ground harnesses are raised, so the filling 
passes over the crossing threads and under the ground threads at 
this part of the design. 

The fifth pick is the same as the first and third, the standard and 
doup being the only harnesses lifted. 

It is so simple to compare each pick in the plan with the corre- 
sponding pick irt the harness chain, that we will not continue this 
explanation for each of the twenty-four picks in the design. On every 
odd-numbered pick the standard and doup are lifted, and on the 
even-numbered picks, the doup and crossing, and the ground threads 
required to form the pattern, are lifted. 

There is, however, one feature of the chain which might cause 
unnecessary trouble. Upon close examination, it will be noted that 
at some points on the even-numbered picks a square and a circle come 
together, as at the fourth and fifth squares of the fourth pick in Fig. 



9P7 



242 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



X 



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24- 
23 — 
22- 

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Fig. 325. 



258 



TEXTILE DESIGN 243 



324. At other points two blank squares adjoin as in the sixth and 
seventh squares of the second pick. These would seem to suggest 
either a break in the plain weave or some sort of interference with the 
gauze, when as a matter of fact neither is the case. 

In the course of various explanations, the threads have been 
referred to as working in pairs, and it will be found upon carefully 
examining the design that where two marks or two blank spaces come 
together, one of the blank spaces or marks belongs to one pair of threads 
and the other belongs to the next pair of threads, or the ground thread 
of one pair is lifted and the crossing thread of the next pair, or vice 
versa. It is obvious that it would not be correct to raise both the 
ground and crossing threads in one pair, or to leave both down; that 
is, it would not be correct in this design, but it might be done in form- 
ing a warp figure. This, however, will come under a different head- 
ing, and will be taken up later. - 

Another design on the same general principles as Fig. 323, is 
shown in Fig. 325, with the harness chain or design in Fig. 326. In 
the former instance, a diamond-shaped space of plain cloth is outlined 
by plain gauze, while in the latter there are two solid diamond- 
shaped spaces of plain gauze and plain cloth respectively. 

We will not take up much space in explaining the method of 
drawing in the warp, as it is the same in every respect as in Fig. 323. 
Twelve ground harnesses and twelve crossing harnesses are required 
with one standard and doup. The design repeats on twenty-four 
tlireads and twenty-four picks. 

" The small circles in Fig. 326 show where the crossing harnesses 
are lifted, and correspond to the gauze crossings in the plan. The 
blocked-in squares show where the ground harnesses are lifted, and 
represent that portion of the plan occupied by the plain cloth. 

An analysis of the first two picks of the design, in conjunction 
with the plan, will be sufficient to show the method of making this 
effect. On the first pick the standard and doup are lifted, which 
raises all the crossing threads on the doup side of the ground thread. 

On the second pick, the doup, first ground harness, and the last 
eleven crossing harnesses are raised, which makes the first pair of 
threads weave plain, and forms gauze crossings on the other eleven 
pairs of threads. 

The third pick is plain ; the fourth pick has three pairs of threads 



?59 



244 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



weaving plain, and nine pairs forming gauze. The fifth is plain; and 
so on, till the space occupied by gauze tapers off to a point at the 
twelfth pick. From this point it gradually widens, until, at the twenly- 
fourth pick, it takes in every pair of threads in the design. 

From the above examples it will be understood that the require- 
ments, when working figured leno of this character with one doup 
and standard, are to lift the doup and standard on each alternate 
pick, weaving plain on the doup side of the ground thread ; to lift 
the crossing harnesses and doup on the other picks, to form the 
crossings; and to lift the ground harnesses when plain cloth is desired. 





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Fig. 326. 

When studying any combination of weaves, it is an excellent 
plan to find the kinds of cloth and the classes of designs they are most 
suitable for. In this combination of plain cloth and gauze, the very 
manner in which the pattern is formed seems almost to suggest that 
the most suitable figures will be ones which have a geometrical base. 
Although patterns of a more or less floral character may be produced, 
there is a great tendency to produce an uneven appearance where 
curved lines are attempted, while this difficulty is wholly avoided in 
making figures of a geometrical form. 

Note that the crossing threads pass over the picks on each side 
of the gauze crossings, thus forming clear definitions of the patterns. 

Warp Figures with Gauze. Considering the designs taken up 
thus far, the suggestion is implied that in weaving leno designs with 



260 



TEXTILE DESIGN 245 



one doup and standard, the only effects which may be produced are 
combinations of plain cloth and plain gauze. This, however, is not 
the case, for various kinds of figures may be woven between lines of 
gauze. 

For the purpose of producing variety of patterns or designs in 
leno fabrics, warp and filling figures are produced; i. e., figures where 
the warp or filling floats loosely on the surface to form the desired 
figure. 

In weaving ordinary spot or figured designs, there is no difficulty 
in floating either warp or filling threads on the surface of the cloth, 
but in cross weaving the method is not quite so simple. 

As shown in the figures illustrating the methods of combining 
plain gauze and plain cloth with one doup and standard, the crossing 
thread works in the crossed position (which is the doup side) to form 
plain cloth, at all times except where the gauze crossings are formed. 
The crossing thread then passes from the crossed position to that which 
it would occupy in ordinary weaving, or if the standard and doup were 
not used, and passing back again to the crossed position makes a 
complete gauze crossing. 

There is another feature which must be considered before passing 
further. By this method of working, the doup forms the ground on 
the alternate picks where the doup and standard are lifted, and the 
gauze crossings take place, not when the standard and doup are lifted, 
but on the picks where the standard is down; the object being to 
make it a matter of choice whether the harness carrying the crossing 
thread (to which we have previously alluded as the crossing harness, 
and which is marked C in previous illustrations) shall be raised to 
form a crossing or whether its companion thread shall be raised to 
form plain. 

From this it will be seen that the doup and standard must be 
raised together on every alteTnate pick. There can be no departure 
from this, consequently a filling figure cannot be formed on the face 
of the cloth, because it is necessary that a number of threads shall stay 
down for a number of picks when the filling is interwoven, so that the 
filling can float over them to make a filling figure. This, of course, is 
impossible when using a principle where the standard and doup must 
rise at every alternate pick, so it is clear that a filling figure cannot be 
formed on the face of the cloth. 



246 TEXTILE DESIGN 



Warp figures can be formed, however, sp it follows that if the 
warp is floated over the filling to make a warp figure, the filling must 
float under the warp to form a filling figure on the back of the cloth ; 
therefore, filling figures can be made by weaving the cloth face down. 
This being understood, the warp figure will be explained, remembering 
that a figure of the same characteristics is being formed by the filling 
floating underneath. 

The illustration in Fig. 327 shows a design or harness chain for 
two diamond-shaped warp figures on a plain gauze ground The 
arrangement of harnesses, drawing-in draft, and plan of the cloth are 
shown in Fig. 328. Before making a careful study of the chain and 
plan, the fact should be firmly fixed in mind that the standard and 
doup must rise at every alternate pick; of course raising the crossing 
thread; and for the formation of gauze the crossing thread is raised 
at the next pick by the crossing harness. For plain cloth the compan- 
ion or ground thread is lifted by the ground harness, so that the plain 
cloth and gauze are made in the same manner as previously explained. 

Now, in the formation of a warp figure, all threads must be raised 
so the filling will pass under them. When the standard and doup are 
Ufted, all the crossing threads are raised without lifting any of the 
crossing harnesses, and the ground threads may be raised by lifting 
the ground harnesses. On the picks where the standard is not raised, 
the required threads are lifted by hfting the crossing and the ground 
harnesses. 

This will be made clearer by reference to the third and fourth 
picks in Fig. 327. On the third pick the doup is lifted, but of course 
this will not lift any threads if either the standard or crossing harnesses 
are not also lifted; consequently, the first seven crossing harnesses 
are Hfted as indicated by the small circles. In the figure five ground 
harnesses are lifted and two more crossing harnesses, making a total 
of fourteen harnesses, in addition to the doup, that are lifted on the 
third pick. 

On the fourth pick the standard and doup are lifted, so none of 
the crossing harnesses is lifted, there being as many threads raised 
by lifting the standard and doup and three ground harnesses as were 
lifted on the previous pick with fourteen harnesses. This illustrates 
the reason why the odd-numbered picks in Fig. 327 have so many 
more risers than the even-numbered picks. 



262 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



247 



The circles indicate where a crossing harness is raised on the pick 
where the doup also is raised and shows where gauze crossings take 
place. 

To become familiar enough with this principle to be able to tell 
at a glance to which set each thread belongs, and whether it is forming 
plain, gauze, or figure, it will be profitable to examine several picks 
of Fig, 328, in conjunction with the chain or design shown in Fig. 327. 

On the first pick, the crossing threads of the first eight pairs are 
at the left of the ground thread and pass over the filling. In the 





SD 


c 


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Fig. 327 

ninth, tenth, and eleventh pairs, the ground threads are over the filling, 
and the crossing threads are at the. right of the ground threads and 
under the filling. The last pajr of threads is Hke the first nine. 
Reference to the first pick of the chain shows how this is brought 
about. The first eight crossing harnesses, being raised in conjunction 
with the doup, draw the crossing threads from the doup side and over 
the filling. The last crossing harness works in the same manner. 
The ninth, tenth, and eleventh ground harnesses are lifted, so these 
ground threads are raised, while their companion crossing threads 
remain down. 

On the second pick, the standard and doup are lifted which, of 
course, raises every crossing thread, and on the doup side of the ground 



248 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



T 



\ 



24 

22 

21 

20 — 
9-C- 
8 — 
7 — 
6 — 
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264 



TEXTILE DESIGN 249 



thread. The tenth ground harness also is raised on this pick, which 
Ufts the tenth ground thread over the filKng. 

The third pick is similar to the first; the first to the seventh 
crossing threads being drawn to the left of the ground thread and over 
the filling, while the eighth, ninth, and twelfth crossing threads are at 
the right or doup side, and pass under the filling, their companion 
ground threads being raised. In the tenth and eleventh pairs of 
threads, however, both the ground and the crossing threads are raised. 

Reference to the third pick of Fig. 327 will explain how the 
positions of the various threads are brought about. The first seven 
crossing threads in conjunction with the doup cause the gauze cross- 
ings on the first seven pairs of threads. The eighth, ninth, and 
twelfth ground harnesses are raised, while their companion crossing 
threads are down, which gives the relative positions of these threads, 
and the tenth and eleventh ground and crossing harnesses are both 
lifted which raises both ground and crossing threads over the filling, 
and forms part of the warp figure. The filling floating under these 
threads will, of course, form part of a filling figure. 

The fourth pick is similar to the second, there being three ground 
harnesses, in addition to the standard and doup, raised on this pick. 

The other picks may be followed in a similar manner, comparing 
the effect, as shown in the plan of the cloth, with the method of lifting 
the harnesses as shown in Fig. 327. 

The principle of boating the warp on the surface may be used to 
form diagonal patterns, as is shown in the design at Fig. 329 and the 
plan of cloth in Fig. 330. Twenty-four threads and picks are required 
for one repeat, and the arrangement of harnesses and drawing-in 
draft is the same as in the previous example. The small circles on 
the even-numbered picks are always on the crossing harnesses and 
show where the crossing thread is lifted to form a gauze crossing, the 
same as in Fig. 328. 

It will be unnecessary to go into a detailed explanation of this 
design, as it is made on exactly the same principle as Fig. 328. It 
will, however, be excellent practice for the student to carefully trace 
the interlacings of each thread and follow the risers in Fig. ,329. It 
should be noted that the standard and doup are raised on the first 
pick of the design, while Fig. 328 commences with the doup and 
crossing harnesses raised. 



265 



250 TEXTILE DESIGN 



There are other considerations relating to this class of designs 
which demand attention. It is generally recognized that where a 
figure is formed by the same warp or filling that forms the ground 
floating over a number of threads, the texture, or number of threads 
per inch, should be sufficiently close to produce a compact fabric, or 
one which will have the appcrance of- compactness. This makes 
the use of a large number of threads and picks, or heavy yarn, neces- 
sary. 

In both Figs. 228 and 230 there are long floats between the series 
of gauze crossings, so as many threads and picks per inch as possible 
should be used, but from the nature of cross weaving a large number 
of threads and picks cannot be used. If a heavier yarn is used, the 
number of threads and picks per inch will be reduced in proportion 
to the increased size or diameter of the yarn, because the crossing 
takes place between the picks and each pick will be separated from 
the next by at least the diameter of the yarn which is used. This 
difficulty will be met in making any kind of figures with plain gauze, 
and care should be used to select designs in which it may be over- 
come to at least some extent. 

Another feature of plain gauze is that one of the chief objects is 
to produce as much contrast as possible between the gauze ground and 
the figure. To do this two things are necessary; first, to form a close 
compact figure ; and second, to have the texture of the ground as open 
as possible. 

It has just been shown that it is rot an easy matter to obtain a 
close figure by any of the methods described up to this point, because 
of the influence of the crossing. At the same time, it is not an easy 
matter to obtain the desired degree of openness in the gauze because 
of the thickness of the yarn, or the attempt to press it closely together 
to improve the appearance of the part that is not gauze. The fact 
may be stated generally that, with the method of working just explained, 
the two important conditions, i. e., openness of gauze and compactness 
of the rest of the cloth, cannot be obtained with any degree of perfec- 
tion. It is, therefore, necessary to resort to other means. 

There are two distinct methods of obtaining the requisite open- 
ness in the gauze, and a close texture in the plain and figure, and they 
may be employed either separately or combined. The first is to 
introduce more than one pick of filling into one shed between the 



S66 




IMPROVED DOBBY WITH ATIACHMENT FOR LENO WEAVING 

Crompton & Knowles Loom Works 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



251 



crossings, and the second is to cause the crossings to take place with 
more than two threads, as has always been the case up to now. 

It is very practical to take four, six, or almost any other reasonable 
number of threads and cross two over two, three over three, or in any 
manner desired to produce the requisite openness, because by so doing 
there is greater bulk at the point of crossing and of necessity there is a 
greater space between the threads so crossed than if they had simply 
been crossed in pairs. 

Taking up the first method, it is quite clear that if only one doup 
is employed, and if that doup has to share in the formation of plain, 



DS^^G^G^G^G^ 



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24 

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Fig. 329. 



that more than one pick cannot be inserted between the crossings, 
because of the doup having to rise at alternate picks. It is therefore 
clear that the method of working with one doup crossing one thread 
is out of the question. It is equally clear that if more than two threads 
are to cross each other a different system of douping must be resorted 
to. 

The following chapter takes up this matter and explains methods 
of combining parallel and cross-woven methods of interlacing so as 
to produce any texture required. 

Open-Work Leno Designs. The need of other methods of 
crossing in addition to the one-thread-crossing-one system has been 
shown by the effect of this method on the texture. Furthermore, 



267 



252 



TEXTILE DESIGN 






t 



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I 



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24 
23 
22 
21 
20 
19 
18 
17 
16 
15 
14 
13 
12 
11 
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8 

7 
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Fig. 330. 






S68 



TEXTILE DESIGN 253 



many patterns are formed by varying the methods of crossing, no 
attempt being made to form figures, such as produced by ordinary 
weaving. This class, however, is th6 highest type of cross-woven 
fabric, or any other class of woven fabric, and has the appearance of 
lace, the filling and warp both being deflected to form the charac- 
teristic open work. The largest class of leno designs is between the 
fine lace-Hke patterns and those made on the one-thread-crossing-one 
system. 

Crossing threads may pass over or under any practical number 
of threads, as easily as they cross one thread, and these crossings may 
be the groundwork for figured cloths, or they may form figures. If 
they form ground for figures, the latter may have a compact texture, 
because the threads which are worked together in the crossings may 
have different methods of interlacing in the figures. This system may 
be applied equally well when the crossings form the figure and the 
ground is a compact weave, by running several threads together to 
form the gauze. 

These are perhaps the most useful applications of the one-thread- 
crossing-more-than-one principle; i. e., to form a compact figure on 
an open ground or to form an open figure on a compact ground. 
Other useful features will become apparent in the course of the 
explanation. 

Following the same methods as were used in plain gauze, the 
system will be taken up in a graded manner, the simplest principles 
being illustrated and explained with a view to estabhshing firmly the 
differences between one thread crossing one, and one thread crossing 
more than one. 

The illustration in Fig. 331 shows one thread crossing three others, 
which are interlaced in plain order between the crossings. Other 
illustrations show twills combined with cross weaving. Each indi- 
vidual thread in these designs should be followed, and especial 
attention should be given to the interlacing of the crossing threads. 

Assume that it is necessary to form a pattern in which plain and 
cross weaving are combined, the effect to be alternate stripes of plain 
and cross weaving running across the cloth. This pattern is shown 
in the section on simple cross weaving, but the cross-woven effect in 
the present instance is to be of a more open character than the previous 
example. From previous remarks it will be inferred that the open 



269 



254 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



effect can be obtained only by having a larger number of crossing 
threads, or by having a larger number of threads crossed by them. 
It may be obtained by one thread" crossing two threads, by one thread 
crossing three, by two threads crossing two, or by any similar arrange- 
ment. 

For a first example, it will be convenient to deal with one thread 
crossing three, as by that method the general principles can be brought 
out in such a manner that the details will be thoroughly understood. 

Fig. 331 shows a pattern which consists of five picks of plain cloth 
and one pick on which the crossing takes piace. To make the space 



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Fig. 331. 

between the crossing pick and those on each side of it larger than it 
would be with one thread crossing one, the crossing thread crosses 
three threads. To produce this effect, the method of drafting and 
douping the pattern is different from any of the examples previously 
explained, and .will perhaps require a little study. 

The illustration shows a plan of the cloth, also the arrangement 
of harness, drawing-in draft, and chain. The ground harnesses 
are marked G, crossing harness is marked. C, and the standard and 
doup are marked S and D respectively. The ground threads are 
drawn in on the ground harnesses and the crossing thread is drawn 



270 



TEXTILE DESIGN 255 



in on the crossing harness, then passed under the three ground threads 
and drawn through the doup. 

Analyzing the plan in conjunction with the harness chain, the 
effect of Hfting the harnesses is found to be the same as in previous 
examples, except that the standard and doup being lifted, draws the 
crossing thread under three threads instead of under one. This is 
due to the doup being at the right of three threads instead of being 
only one thread to the right. 

It is equally impossible for the crossing thread, drawn in on 
the arrangement where the doup is one thread to the right of the 
crossing harness, to cross under three threads, as it is for the crossing 
thread drawn in on the present arrangement to cross under only one 
thread. Therefore, it may be accepted as a general rule that when 
the crossing thread is drawn under the ground threads, it must be 
drawn under as many threads as it is crossed under when passed from 
the heddle on the crossing harness to the doup. 

Returning to the analysis of the plan and harness chain, it will 
be noted that the first pick on the harness chain has the doup, crossing, 
and the second ground harness lifted, which raises the crossing thread 
over the filling on the left of the ground thread, and also raises the 
second ground thread, as this is the one drawn in through the second 
ground harness. 

• On the second pick, the doup and the first and third ground 
harnesses are lifted, which of course lifts the first and third ground 
threads over the filling. The crossing thread and second ground 
thread are under the filling, as neither the standard nor crossing har- 
ness nor the second ground harness is lifted. 

The third and fifth picks are like the first, and the second pick 
is like the fourth. The crossing takes place on the sixth pick by 
raising the standard and doup in just the same manner as in plain 
gauze weaving. 

The first pick after the sixth is- like the first pick at the bottom of 
the design, and shows how the crossing thread is drawn back to the 
left of the ground threads by raising the crossing harness and doup. 
Two repeats of the pattern are given in the direction of the filling, and 
three repeats in the warp, the object being to show the continuity of 
the pattern and to give a better idea of the effect. 



an 



256 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



There is one feature of this design which merits special attention. 
In the pages on simple leno effects, it is stated that there should be an 
uneven number of picks of plain between the crossings so that the 
crossing thread may pass over both the pick preceding and the pick 
following the crossing. Note that this plan is followed, as is shown 
at picks five and one. 

Summarizing the operation of making this pattern, and com- 
paring it with others made on the one-thread-crossing-one system. 





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Fig. 332. 

the differences are as follows: The arrangement of harnesses and 
the operation of drawing-in the warp are different, and when the 
standard and doup are lifted the crossing thread crosses three ground 
threads instead of one. The latter is a direct result of the former, so 
practically the only new feature is the method of drawing in the warp 
threads. 

When four harnesses in addition to the standard and doup are 
employed, as in Fig. 331, it is not necessary to confine the ground to 
the plain weave, as other weaves may be combined with this pri^iciple 
of crossing. As there are four harnesses, a four harness twill may be 
used, as shown in Fig. 332, the ground weave in this illustration being 
the one up three down swansdown weave. Note that the crossing 



272 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



257 



thread is over the picks on eaah side of the crossing, as in previous 
examples. 

A careful study of Fig. 332 shows that the arrangement of har- 
nesses and drawing-in draft is the same as in Fig. 331, the difference 
in the plan of cloth being due to the harness chain. Referring to 
the chain we find the one up, three down weave on the ground and 
crossing harnesses, the crossing being formed by lifting the standard 
and doup in the usual manner. Of course, the ground weave might 
be repeated any number of times between the crossings, if this were 





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Fig 333. 

necessary, but. it would be a good plan to have one pick more than 
even repeats, so that the picks on each side of the crossing would be 
the same. 

The illustration. Fig. 333, is another example of the four harness 
ground weave combined with a crossing. In this instance the four- 
harness cassimere twill, two up, two down, is used. The method is 
the same as in previous examples, so it will be unnecessary to go into 
details. It will be valuable to study these illustrations comparing 
the plan and drawing-in draft with the harness chain or design, for 
the principles illustrated in these three examples are extensively used 
in leno designing. The method of crossing one thread under more 
than one may be extended and used in connection with other weaves 



273 



258 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



to produce more elaborate patterns by the use of a larger number of 
harnesses. 



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Leno Stripes. It has been previously stated that large varieties 
of patterns can be formed by simply varying the number and position 



274 



TEXTILE DESIGN 259 



of the ground and the crossing picks, and it is unnecessary to illustrate 
this further, but most of the patterns formed in this manner would 
show stripes crossing the cloth. While this is not always objection- 
able, stripes running lengthwise or in the direction of the warp may 
be more desirable. These are made by the arrangement shown in 
Fig. 334. 

The threads which are to form the cross-woven portion of the 
pattern are drafted and douped in the manner shown in the illustra- 
tion, while the threads forming the ground between the stripes are 
drawn in on the ground harnesses in the usual manner. This necessi- 
tates the use of what are known as stripe harnesses and doups, which 
are harnesses arranged in such a manner that there will be a number 
of heddles at specified distances, and then a space in which there are 
no heddles. The spaces on some of the harnesses correspond to 
the places where there are heddles on other harnesses, which gives 
the required number of heddles for each repeat of the pattern. 

The plan of the cloth shows a combination of leno, sateen, and 
plain weaving. The threads forming the leno stripe are drawn in on 
the doups, ground and crossing harnesses, which are marked D, G, 
and C, respectively. The threads forming the sateen stripe are 
drawn in on the harnesses marked B, and the threads for plain are 
drawn in on the harnesses marked P. 

Two doups and standards are required, as the first and fourth 
pairs of crossing and ground threads do not "work" in the same manner 
as the second and third pairs. In fact, the first and fourth pairs, 
although drawn in on the same harnesses, do not work the same, but 
the difference is merely a difference in the side of the ground thread 
on which they weave, the first crossing thread being on the right side 
of the first ground thread when the fourth crossing thread is on the 
left side of the fourth ground thread, and vice versa. This is obtained 
on the full gauze principle, one crossing thread being drawn through 
the doup at the right of. the ground thread and the other being 
drawn through the doup on the left of the ground thread. 

The same difference will be noted in the second and third pairs 
of threads. Two harnesses are allowed for the plain weave, and 
three harnesses are allowed for the threads weaving in sateen order, 
which makes a total of nine harnesses, in addition to two standards 
and doups. 



275 



260 TEXTILE DESIGN 



The harness chain is shown in Fig. 335. The letters correspond 
to the letters on the harnesses in the plan, and the numbers correspond 
to the figures on the picks. A cursory examination of the chain shows 
nothing unusual, except perhaps that there are no risers on the first 
ground harness. The ground threads in the first and fourth pairs 
of threads forming the leno stripe are drawn in on this harness, and 
a reference to the plan shows that they are never raised over a pick 
of filling, so of course the harness on which they are drawn is never 
lifted. 

An analysis of the first two picks would show the following: On 
the first pick of the chain, both doups, the first three harnesses marked 
B, the first harness marked P, and both crossing harnesses are lifted. 
The result as shown in the first pick of the plan is that every odd- 
numbered thread in the first ten, which are weaving plain, is lifted; 
four threads on each side of the leno stripe are raised; the crossing 
threads are all on the crossing harness side of the ground threads and 
lifted over the filling; and the last ten threads weave in the same man- 
ner as the first ten. 

On the second pick of the chain the doups, second and third 
harnesses marked B, second harness marked P, and the crossing 
harnesses, are raised. The effect as shown in the plan is to raise the 
even-numbered threads of those weaving plain. The first, second, 
and fourth of those forming the sateen stripe, and the crossing threads 
on the same side of the ground threads as in the first pick. Other 
picks may be followed in the chain and plan in the same manner. 

The stripes of plain sateen or leno may be varied in width and 
texture, or other weaves may be added at the designer's pleasure. 

In laying out an original design of this nature, it would be neces- 
sary to take into consideration the textures of the various weaves. 
For instance, the leno stripe would, of course, be as open as possible. 
The plain cloth ought to be quite firm, so would require a medium 
number of picks per inch, depending upon the size of the yarn. The 
sateen stripe would be "crowded" in the reed to give the characteristic 
sateon effect. 

In the arrangement of harnesses in Fig. 334, only two harnesses 
are allowed for the plain weave. In some instances, where there is 
a large number of threads per inch, consequently a large number of 
heddles on the harnesses, it might be necessary to increase the number 



276 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



261 



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of harnesses used for the plain cloth to four, in order to avoid excessive 
breakage in the warp. 

In combining leno stripes with stripes of other weaves, the 
crossing thread usually crosses more than one ground thread. When 
one thread crosses three or five ground threads, better effects are 
possible, because the chief object is to obtain as much contrast as 
possible between the openness of texture of 
the leno stripe and the closeness of the other 
sections of the pattern. This result is ob- 
tained by inserting more than one pick in 
each shed of the cross weaving, so as to allow 
a large number of picks to be used, and 
having the other stripes woven with the twill 
or any weave which will make a compact 
texture. This arrangement will give a ^^' 

marked contrast between the cross woven and the ordinary woven 
stripes. 

The limit of variation has not been reached with varying the 
texture, however, for the threads which are forming the leno stripe 
may change from cross weaving to ordinary weaving, and form plain, 
twilled, or even figured cloth. This simply means that, as shown in 
previous examples, the crossing harnesses would work in the same 
manner as regular harnesses, just as though the dpup had no connec- 
tion with the pattern. 

The form of cross weaving might also be changed, thus forming 
different degrees of openness in the leno stripe. It will be understood 
that the jacquard may be used in the same manner as an ordinary 
loom, when the patterns are too elaborate to be woven or a practical 
number of harnesses. The threads would be drawn through the eyes 
of the harness cords in the usual manner and those which are to form 
leno would be drawn through a doup, just as if a dobby or head 
motion were being used. 

The jacquard is not used, however, except when it is impossible 
to produce the patterns on harnesses, on account of the expense of 
operating the jacquard machine. Patterns which are seemingly 
beyond the range of harnesses may be woven on them by a judicious 
arrangement of the harnesses. 

The illustration Figc 336 shows a design which consists of cross 



5377 



262 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



weaving, plain cloth, and small figures. The plan of the cloth and 
the drawing-in draft are shown in Fig. 337. It might be supposed 
that this design is beyond the range of a dobby or head motion, but 
by careful arrangement it may be woven on sixteen harnesses with 
one standard and doup, as shown by the harness chain in Fig. 338. 



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Fig. 336. 

Reference to the drawing-in draft shows that every crossing 
thread is drawn under three ground threads, and the chain shows 
that the standard and doup are lifted at every alternate pick, to weave 
plain cloth between the crossing places. This is similar to previous 
examples, and limits the design to one pick in each shed. Sufficient 
openness of the texture is obtained, howevcx, by the crossing thread 
passing under three ground threads. 

If this pattern required the crossing thread to be on the crossing 
harness side* of the ground threads when weaving plain, more har- 



278 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



263 





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Fig. 337. 



879 



264 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



nesses would be needed than could be operated by a harness motion, 
consequently the jacquard machine would have to be used. 

It is unnecessary to explain how each crossing is formed, as the 
full design, chain, and drawing-in draft may be compared, and the 
result observed by studying the enlarged plan of cloth. The circles 

show where the crossing harnesses 
are lifted and the crosses in the full 
design. Fig. 336, are on the standard 
and doup, as these are not, strictly 
speaking, a part of the design. 

On the first pick of the harness 
chain, the doup, third, and fourth 
crossing harnesses and the first, 
third, and seventh ground harnesses 
are raised. The result shown in the 
first pick of the enlarged plan is as 
follows: The crossing threads drawn 
in on the third and fourth crossing 
harnesses — the sixth, seventh, eighth, 
ninth, and tenth— are raised over the 
filling at the left of the three ground 
threads with which they work. The 
ground threads drawn in on the 
first, third, and fifth ground harnesses 
(shown in the drawing-in draft at 
the top of Fig. 337) are raised to 
form plain cloth. All other threads 
are under the filling and the crossing 
threads which are not crossed; i. e., 
those drawn in on the first and second crossing harnesses, form part 
of the plain cloth. 

On the second pick, the standard and doup, and the second, 
fourth, and sixth ground threads are raised. The effect shown in 
the second pick of the plan is as follows: All the crossing threads 
are on the doup side of the ground threads and raised over the filling. 
The ground threads drawn in on the second, fourth, and sixth ground 
harnesses also pass over the filling. The third pick is like the first 
and the fourth is like the second. 



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Fig. 338. 



9M 



TEXTILE DESIGN 265 



From this point other crossing and ground harnesses are raised 
with the effect shown in the plan. Each thread should be carefully 
followed and the two small warp figures, on the third and ninth sets 
of threads respectively, noted in their relation to the harness chain. 

TEXTILE COLORING 

Up to this point, with the exception of a few pages in Part I in 
which the method of forming simple stripe and check effects by comb- 
ing various colored warp and filling threads with suitable weaves, the 
weave or combination of wea/es used in textile designing have 
received most of our attention. The manner of interlacing the threads 
does not, however, represent all that requires attention, for in many 
cases the colors are quite as important as the texture or form. 

By most textile writers the elements of woven patterns are stated 
as weave and color. The first is the basis of cloth manufacture and 
relates to the build or structure of the fabric. Though weave may be 
regarded in textile designing as a constructive and not an ornamental 
component of the pattern, there are numerous examples in which it 
possesses both these characteristics. For instance, the gauze and leno 
designs explained in previous pages do not rely upon schemes of color 
for their effect. The structural plan of the cloth is such that a firm 
and even cloth, which is decorated with a pronounced and decided 
pattern, is produced. Common twills, pique designs and other com- 
binations of weaves also have this combination of constructive and 
ornamental powers. 

Color is very differently related to textile design. Its specific 
province is to brighten and improve the qualities of the design pro- 
duced by the weave. 

An analysis of woven cloths will show the extensive use of color 
in textiles. In some branches, such as woolen goods, it is the dis- 
tinguishing element of the cloth. To remove color from such goods 
as cassimeres, shawls, or rugs would remove the chief qualities of the 
cloth, so in this instance, color is at least as important as weave. In 
other instances color is a supplementary element giving precision to 
the composition of the weave. 

Theory of Color. The science of color teaches the nature and 
causes of color, their distinctions, their relations to each other, their 



Ml 



266 TEXTILE DESIGN 



classification, the mental effects that attend them, and the causes and 
laws of color harmony. 

There are two important theories of color: i. e., the pigment 
theory and the light theory. The light theory will be explained first 
for it deals with the phenomena of color and explains the laws which 
control the modification of the intensity, tone, and hue of colors. 

In the light theory, white light is said to be pure light and to 
contain all colors. By a simple and inexpensive experiment it is 
possible to acquire a useful knowledge of the composition of white 
light. A glass prism is fixed in a darkened room so that a ray of 
light may pass through it. This gives an analysis of light which 
shows it to be composed of different colors. Thus, when the ray of 
. light passes through the prism it is bent out of its path, and thereby 
decomposed, producing what is termed a spectrum. The spectrum 
shows every gradation of color but the following division is generally 
accepted as most satisfactory: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and 
violet. 

The results obtained by this prismatic experiment form profitable 
and suggestive exercises in color combinations. They are always 
harmonious and the colors are much richer than those obtained by 
pigments. 

The pigment theory deals with color as an active element in 
decorative desigii and is adopted in the applied arts. It is the theory 
that can be worked out in practice. According to its principles, red, 
yellow and blue are separate pigments and by mixing them in variable 
proportions, and, of course, toning and tinting with white and black, 
every possible tone and hue of color may be obtained. Thus yellow 
and blue give green; yellow and red give orange; and red and blue 
give violet. 

Clcissification of Colors. All colors belong to one of two dis- 
tinct classes: i. e., Simple Colors and Compound Colors. Simple 
colors cannot be divided into other hues or colors ; in other words they 
are individual colors. Compound colors, being the result of combin- 
ing two or more other colors, may be divided into their constituent 
colors. Various writers on the subject do not agree on the classifica- 
tion of colors, but when the color is considered with a view to its 
practical application it is necessary to base all combinations on New- 



2S2 




ROYLE'S POWER PIANO CARD CUTTING MACHINE 



TEXTILE DESIGN 267 



ton's theory, that red, blue, and yellow are simple colors and all other 
colors are the result of mixing these three in various proportions. 

There are two classes of compound colors, namely, Secondary 
Colors and Tertiary Colors. The Secondary Colors are green, orange, 
and violet; and the Tertiary Colors are russet, citrine and olive. The 
constituent parts of these colors will be taken up later. 

The principles and classification of colors being understood we 
will confine our attention to the color pigments in their relation to 
textiles. To know the value of color it is necessary to learn something 
of the laws which govern color harmony. The influence of one color 
over another as to whether the effect is pleasing or otherwise is the 
subject which occupies the attention of the textile designer, for the 
success of his patterns depends upon a judicious selection and use 
of materials. 

There are two reasons for applying colors: first, to give objects 
a better appearance; and second, to assist in the separation of objects, 
or parts of objects, thus giving assistance to form. The truth of the 
first reason is self-evident and need not be discussed. The value of 
the second reason is evident, but a brief explanation may make it 
clearer. 

If objects of the same, or nearly the same, color are placed near 
one another, there will be more or less difficulty in determining the 
boundaries of each object. If widely different colors are used, there 
will be no difficulty in determining the extent of the figures or objects . 

Thus color assists in the separation of form, or renders form 
apparent. In textile goods, this applies to almost all patterns where 
there is a ground fabric with some form of ornamentation. 

The following axiomatic statements will serve to explain the sub- 
ject of color and make following statements clear. 

(a) Regarded from a scientific point of view there are but three 
colors; i. e., blue, red and yellow. 

(6) Blue, red and yellow are termed primary colors, as they 
cannot be formed by the admixture of any other colors. 

(c) All colors except blue, red and yellow result from the admix- 
ture of the primary colors. 

{d) By mixing blue and red, purple is formed. 

(e) By mixing red and yellow, orange is formed. 

(/) By mixing yellow and blue, green is formed. 



2t8 



268 TEXTILE DESIGN 



{g) Colors resulting from the mixture ox two primary colors are 
termed secondary colors. Thus, purple, orange, and green are second- 
ary colors. 

Qi) Colors formed by mixing two secondary colors are termed 
tertiary colors. 

{i) By mixing purple and orange, russet, the red tertiary, is 
formed. 

{]) By mixing green and purple, olive, the blue tertiary, is 
formed. 

{k) By mixing orange and green, citrine, the yellow tertiary, is 
formed. 

The diagrams A, B, and C in Fig. 339 will be found useful in 
studying the various colors. Diagram A represents the primary 
colors. Diagram B shows the secondary colors in their relation to the 
primary colors. For instance, orange is formed by the mixture of 
red and yellow, so that orange is represented between red and yel- 
low. Diagram C shows the secondary and tertiary colors in their 
proper positions with relation to the manner in which they are formed. 

Relation of Color to Textiles. There are pecuharities of textile 
manufacturing which make impracticable many of the rules which 
apply in ordinary surface decoration. The structure of the cloth and 
the purpose for which it is to be used determine the coloring and the 
systems of distribution. An arrangement of colors might be excellent 
for a rug or carpet which would hardly become fashionable in clothing. 

The effects of the various animal and vegetable fibers on colors 
also are interesting. On cotton colors are dull; on woolens color has 
a peculiar depth; on worsteds they are bright and definite; while on 
silk they are brilliant. These results are due to the properties of the 
various fibers, therefore, it is clear that while ordinary surface decora- 
ting has laws which are impracticable in textile designing, the latter 
also has laws which do not apply to the former. 

In addition to the method of forming simple stripe and check 
effects, as explained in Part I, by employing various colored threads 
in the warp and filling with suitable weaves, there are three other 
methods of employing color as follows: 

(a) By blending various colors of material in the raw state. 

(6) By combining colors to form twist and novelty yarns. 

(c) By using an extra set of warp or filling threads. 



264 



TEXTILE DESIGN 



In the first method, the materials are combined before carding, 
being thoroughly mixed in the carding operation. This system of 

RED 



DIJiGFiAM A 




DLUEL * * YELXOW 



VIOLET 



JDIJL.GRA.TI J5 




BLUE 



ORATiGE 

A. 

\ / \ I 

jD/AGJ?AJ\f C \ * \ j 

VIOLET^'--— r-^-^S'RE.EH 

OLIVE 
Fig. 339. 

forming mixtures produces yarns in which the separate particles of 
color are uniformly distributed. The mechanical arrangement of 



885 



270 TEXTILE DESIGN 



carding offers every facility for obtaining perfectly mixed and soft- 
toned blends. 

The second method produces yarns in which distinct colors are 
visible, v^^hile the third method is used in making spot designs by 
employing extra yarns. 

To become a good colorist one must have the ability to discrimi- 
nate between good and inharmonious combinations, and one of the 
best methods of acquiring this quality is to form collections of the best 
fabrics of each season. This method is helpful also because a designer 
is, to a large extent, governed by fashion, and fashions move in cycles. 

The primary and secondary colors are very potent and are 
generally mixed with white or black to reduce their intensity. They 
are seldom used for the ground work patterns, their chief use being 
in the form of fancies to give additional tone to the pattern. 

A list of the characteristics of the various colors will be given to 
guide the efforts of those who are not familiar with the qualities of 
colors in woven fabric structure. 

Colors of the Spectrum. By passing a beam of light through a 
glass prism a spectrum is formed, as previously explained, by the white 
light being divided into its constituent colors. These colors are the 
primary and secondary colors, previously explained on the pigment 
theory. As it is necessary to adopt a standard of color, the six colors 
of the spectrum, i. e., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet, are 
sometimes referred to as colors, and all variations in tints, shades and 
hues are considered modifications of these six cc^ors. 

The colors of the spectrum are referred to by different writers as 
standard, spectral, positive, pure, full, and saturated colors. The 
name normal is generally accepted as it expresses the natural condition 
of color when affected by light. 

Tones. The term tone covers the entire scale of color from the 
darkest shade to the hghtest tint, so in a perfect scale of tones the 
grading from one shade to another or from one tint to another, would 
be so slight that it would be almost imperceptible. A scale of tones 
ends in white in one direction and in black in the other direction. It 
follows that tones are produced by adding white or black to the normal 
color. 

Tint is a tone which is lighter than the normal color. Tints are 
produced by adding white to the normal color. Shade is a tone which 



286 



TEXTILE DESIGN 271 



is darker than the normal color. Shades are produced by adding 
black to the normal color. 

Hue. This term is applied to a color when the normal color has 
been modified or changed by the addition of another normal color. 
For example, if a small amount of blue is added to red, a blue-red 
would be formed. This blue-red would be a hue of red. If a small 
amount of green is added to blue the result would be a green-blue. 
The last name indicates the normal color in the scale and the prefix 
is the color added. 

Broken Colors are the normal colors dulled more or less by the 
addition of a gray. 

Value is the luminous intensity of a color, tone or hue in its relation 
to other colors, tones or hues. It is very necessary to keep the values 
of the various colors used in composition to produce a harmonious 
balance of tone or intensity so that the combined effect will not be 
injured by an excess of any color. 

For example, a light blue and a pink will combine and harmonize 
as far as values are concerned. However, equal quantities of a normal 
red and light blue would not harmonize in value because the greater 
intensity of the red would overpower the light blue. When the 
intensities differ the quantities used must be in proportion. It is very 
seldom that equal quantities of two or more colors can be used in 
combination to produce a harmonious effect. 

Potentiality is the power of a color, tone, or hue to affect other 
colors, tones, or hues, when associated with them. The degree of 
potentiality of the six normal colors is in the following order : yellow, 
orange, red, green, blue and violet. 

Scaling is the arrangement of colors in the order of their intensity. 
It may be by colors, tones, or hues, or by these combined. The scale 
of the normal colors consists of their regular spectrum arrangement; 
i. e., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. A scale of tones would be 
as follows : lighter blue, light blue, blue, dark blue, and darker blue. 

While the term tone covers all the variations of a color that may 
be produced by adding black or white to the normal color, but one of 
these may be added otherwise the result will be a broken color. A 
scale of hues consists of a normal color and its hues. The scale of 
hues of red would be violet-red, red, and orange-red. 

Luminous Colors are those that reflect light in large quantities. 



387 



272 TEXTILE DESIGN 



Yellow, orange, red, and green reflect the largest quantity of light and 
of these yellow is the most luminous color. 

Neutral Colors. The effect of these colors is most important. 
Assume that alternate stripes of red and green are used, or that red fig- 
ures are used on a green ground, or vice versa. The result would be 
a blurring sensation if the combination were looked at for several 
minutes. But if the two colors are separated by black or white, or by 
a tertiary or neutral color, the sensation of blurring will be avoided. 
In the same manner, if blue and orange are placed next to each other, 
a blurring sensation will result. The use of dividing lines of neutral 
colors will prevent this. If violet and yellow are placed together the 
effect is not so unpleasant, because the two colors although compli- 
mentary are more nearly allied to darkness and light respectively. 
Yet even in this instance the effect is improved by the presence of 
tertiary or neutral colors. 

In addition to this quality of modifying the effect of comple- 
mentary colors, neutral colors also possess the property of modifying 
the effect of other colors, possessing the same common element. As 
is stated above, colors placed side by side have the effect of detracting 
from each other, but if separated by black or white, or by neutral 
colors, this mutual detraction is prevented or modified. If, for 
example, green and blue are placed together, one color will partly 
destroy the other and the point of junction of the two will hardly be 
discernible, but if separated by a suitable method the effect is improved. 
In the same manner any other powerful or bright colors may be dealt 
with, with the same result. 

Combination of Colors. A study of the following combinations 
will be helpful, and will at least serve as a basis for a more extensive 
knowledge of the effects produced by various combinations of color. 

Red and Blue. In small quantities this is a useful combination, 
but if used in large quantities the good effect is spoiled. The action 
of the colors upon each other is that red assumes a bluish cast, or 
what is termed crimson, while the blue assumes a greenish cast. 

Red and Yellow. This combination is very powerful, and great 
care and skill is needed to use it successfully. Red appears scarlet 
and yellow assumes a greenish color. 

Yellow and Blue. Each color increases in luminosity, lustre and 
depth. Being contrasting colors, yellow and blue do not suffer much 



288 



TEXTILE DESIGN 273 



change in hue by association. In such combinations one color gives 
precision to the qualities of the other. 

Red and Green. Red appears exceedingly bright, the lustre and 
fullness of the hue being emphasized. The softness of hue is empha- 
sized in the green. Being complementary colors, they also give 
precision to the qualities of each other. 

Red and Violet. Red becomes more scarlet and assumes a 
yellowish cast, while the violet assumes a greenish cast. This com- 
bination cannot be used to good advantage. 

Red and Orange. This is a very powerful blend, and therefore 
is little used. Red becomes more violet and orange becomes yellowish. 

Yellow and Violet. This is an excellent combination, both 
x3olors gain in lustre, luminosity, and strength, and form a perfect or 
complete contrast. 

Blue and Orange. Both colors are increased by association, 
but must be used with great care. 

Orange and Green. This is a very strong contrast; orange 
appears scarlet, and the green assumes a violet cast. 

Violet and Green This is not a good combination, although it 
is used to a great extent. Violet assumes a reddish cast, while the 
green appears yellowish and much flatter in tone. 

Violet and Orange. This is considered an excellent and effective 
combination. The violet is slightly greenish and the orange becomes 
more luminous or yellowish. 

The following qualities of colors should be kept in mind when 
they are being used. Blue is a cold color and appears to recede from 
the eye. Red is a warm color and is exciting; it remains stationary 
as to distance. Yellow is the color nearest to light and appears to 
advance to the eye. At twilight blue appears much lighter than it is, 
red appears much darker, and yellow appears much darker. By 
ordinary gaslight, red becomes brighter and yellow becomes lighter. 
Thus it will be noted that the color is determined by the nature of 
the light a*nd the physical properties of the material to which the color 
is applied. 



289 




150 H. P. INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVING LAPPERS 

Manomet Mills 



COST FINDING 



One needs but a casual acquaintance with the industrial world 
of the present day to be aware that the astonishing progress of the 
past few decades is due to the application of scientific and exact 
methods. One of the latest manifestations of this spirit is in the 
attention paid to, and the interest shown in, accurate and eco- 
nomical systems of accounting, and precise methods of determining 
costs of production or operation. No? can the latter be separated 
from the former. It must be stated at the outset and with empha- 
sis, that a proper and accurate system of book-keeping lies at the 
foundation of any reliable cost determination. It is therefore fitting 
to preface a study of cost finding in textile mills by some consider- 
ation of the methods of keeping books and accounts. 

It is a primary purpose, in keeping the accounts of a business, 
to maintain a record of its receipts and expenditures, its assets and 
obligations, so that a statement can be made as often as necessary, 
showing the condition of the business, the quaUty and nature of 
its resources and liabilities, and the amount and source of its gains 
and losses. 

These records may also be so extended as to be useful in show- 
ing the particular sort of product which is most profitable, the exact 
department where economy or extravagance is practiced, the pres- 
ent costs of departments or products as compared with former costs 
of similar work, the places where expense should be curtailed, and 
a basis on which to estimate new work. 

When the Interstate Commerce Commission began its work, 
before any substantial progress could be made, it was found nec- 
essary to prescribe for the use of all railroads a method or system 
of keeping accounts which should be made obligatory in the prep- 
aration of reports, as no comparison could be made under the vari- 
ous systems formerly in practice. For instance, in the classifica- 
tion of operating expenses there are now four main divisions, and 
fifty-three headings of accounts. Some other kinds of business 



991 



COST FINDING 



making government reports are similarly standardized; and, as 
these systems have been devised by experts in consultation, they 
are doubtless effective in accomplishing the desired object. If we 
were to compare methods of bookkeeping in textile mills, we should 
find equally various ideas worked up, and doubtless some curious 
evolutions. 

To illustrate this, take the manner of charging up the purchase 
of oils. Some mills carry an Oil account, into which are charged 
purchases of castor oil, cylinder oil, lard oil, dynamo oil, spindle 
oil, and perhaps others, every one of which may be used for a dif- 
ferent purpose and in a different department. Another mill will 
charge them all to supplies and perhaps charge to each department 
the amount used of various kinds. Another will reason thus: 
Cylinder oil is used in producing power and is as properly charge- 
able to Power account as the labor of the engineer or the fuel used. 
Lard oil is used on cutting tools in the repair shop, and therefore 
chargeable to repairs. Dynamo oil is used only on dynamos and 
therefore should be put into Lighting account. And so on. Of 
course, if all oils are charged to Oil account or under any other 
title, and a record kept of the- quantities and kind delivered each 
department, these amounts may be charged against such depart- 
ment and the same ends will be served. 

It is a valid principle that materials and supplies should be 
charged to the operations or departments in which they are used, 
rather than to an account of their own. For example, in a mill 
finishing its' own goods, and buying starch for that purpose and 
for warp sizing, the starch purchased and used should be charged 
to each operation in either of the ways suggested above, rather than 
to a Starch account without proper division. 

Perhaps the bills embracing the widest variety of accounts are 
those for freight, and they are also those which can be most certainly 
and satisfactorily divided and charged. A general Freight account 
is an abomination, and freight on a mill's -product should in partic- 
ular be separated from all other items, as it is not a charge upon 
manufacture but upon distribution. 

The same principle applies also to labor. If in the outside 
yard department, one man is kept busy packing waste, a second is 
engaged in the care of tenements, two more in unloading coal, while 



291t 



COST FINDING 



another set is handling cotton, the cost of this work should be charged 
to Waste account, Tenement Maintenance account, and Cotton 
account, or whatever titles may represent these accounts, rather 
than be charged in a lump sum to Outside Labor account. The 
ascertainment of such charges is one of the purposes of bookkeeping. 

The number of expense accounts which a mill should carry 
on will depend upon the character of its product. A mill making 
an ordinary variety of goods may make at least such divisions as 
follows and as many more as desired: Cotton, Waste, Manufac- 
turing Labor, Supplies, Repairs, Sizing Materials, Taxes and In- 
surance, Lighting, Power (with subdivisions Fuel, Supplies, Labor), 
Salaries and Office Expense, General Expense. There are always 
some unclassified minor expenses which may be charged thus with 
propriety, but the temptation to make the Expense account a refuge 
for carelessness in analyzing expenditures should be resisted. 

A cash book with separate columns for each of the principal 
accounts will save labor in posting, and the accompanying table 
(See pages 4 and 5) shows how one may be arranged. 

It will be noticed that there are two sets of columns on both 
the debit and credit sides. One set is for a record of the cash, and 
the other is for the distribution of the charges and credits to the 
various ledger titles and accounts. One column in the cash recqrd 
is for the cash in the drawer, and the other one (or as many more 
as may be necessary) may be used for a check register. No check 
book with stubs is needed, as checks are entered directly on the 
cash book. 

The second set of columns is for such accounts as may have 
a considerable number of entries each month. On the debit side 
there are illustrated one for Rents and one for Cloth Sales. On 
the credit side are a number, such as Advanced Payments to Em- 
ployees, Cotton, Sizing Materials, etc. The columns are footed 
and carried forward to the end of the month, when the footings of 
these columns are posted to the ledger. 

It is not worth while to provide a column for any account in 
which the labor of posting each entry would be less than that of 
carrying forward the footings. One or more columns may be left 
vacant in the heading to be used when any account is receiving 
temporary money charges, such as Construction or Machinery. 



293 



COST FINDING 



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S39S 



COST FINDING 



The sum of the footings of account columns on the credit side should 
equal the sum of the cash footings on the same side. The work 
may thus be checked for accuracy as it proceeds. In order to main- 
tain this equality, however, it is necessary to provide a column for 
Transfers of Cash from Drawer to Bank, or vice versa. 

The debit side of the cash may be proved in the same way, 
but due allowance must be made from the cash columns for the 
amount on hand when the month's business was begun. 

Many mill men never realize the difference in the nature of 
the accounts of expense and income, which they carry upon their 
books. Probably a majority of establishments have at least three, 
and sometimes more of these various kinds of accounts. 

1. Costs of Manufacturing, including Material, Labor and 
Supplies. 

2. Costs of Distribution, such as Commissions and Freight 
on Product. 

3.. Expenses and Income not directly connected with manu- 
facturing, such as Repairs to Tenements, Rent, Storage, etc. 

It is not an unusual sight to see mill statements with these 
accounts reported upon in a confused manner. For instance, Rent 
account may be made to appear as a profit on Manufacturing. 

For a proper system of cost finding it is necessary in addition 
to the books of debit and credit to maintain careful records of ma- 
chinery. In each department there should be a permanent daily 
record of the amount and kind of machinery run on each class of 
work, and of the amount of work of each kind produced thereon. 
There should also be a record of all material used, such as cotton, 
yarn, etc., and of all the kinds of waste miade and the amount of 
each kind. The pay-roll should be properly classified and the 
occupation of each employee designated. There will, of course, 
be a record of the product invoiced from the mill, but there should 
also be a record of its weight before any finishing or aging operation 
has added to or reduced it. 

With these preliminary observations, we may take up the ac- 
tual work of applying to the results of a period of manufacturing 
the necessary methods of examination and analysis of the expenses 
to approximate the costs of manufacture. 

As by a mere description, without illustration, it would be 



•06 



COST FINDING 



difficult to explain the working out of the various processes with 
sufficient clearness, it will be best to take an imaginary mill, which 
we will name the Enterprise Cotton Mills, and a supposititious state- 
ment of its operations and expenses. These mills had been recently 
started, and run only about three months, when the manager di- 
rected that an inventory be taken of the stock in process of manu- 
facture and of the suppKes, fuel, packing, oil, repairs, cotton, waste, 
etc. ; that all bills be paid ; that the books of account be closed, and 
a statement of expenses and income be prepared, and also a state- 
ment of the financial condition of the mill. 

The bookkeeper was without former experience in cotton mill 
accounts and some time after the inventory had been completed 
he came to the manager with an anxious face and reported that 
while he had not completely closed the books, he had made a few 
figures in advance and believed the mills were doing business at a 
considerable loss. 

The manager replied that it was quite possible as expenses 
were heavy in starting up, but that he had expected that there would 
be a slight profit. He asked the bookkeeper to go over with him 
the work, done in closing the books that he might set a few prices on 
stock in process. 

The bookkeeper replied that he had taken the stock in process 
at the value per pound of the cost of the cotton used. 

"That is not fair," repHed the manager, "because for every 
ninety pounds of roving now on hand, we have used over a hundred 
pounds of cotton, and every eight hundred and fifty pounds of yarn 
has taken nearly a thousand pounds of cotton from the warehouse. 
So that your books show that cotton used cost us about ten cents 
a pound, while the cotton in every pound of yarn on hand is worth 
more than that, for it took nearly fifteen per cent more cotton to 
make it. It has lost that in waste." 

"But," replied the bookkeeper, "we have sold the waste for 
money or we have it on hand, and I have it also in the inventory." 

"That is true," was the reply; "but the value of the waste is 
small as compared with its cost. The balance of the cost of the 
cotton used in making the stock in process should be added to the 
inventory value of the stock in process. Do it this way : In setting 
a value on the stock in process, make it, say, twelve per cent per 



397 



8 COST FINDING 



pound more than the cost of the cotton. Take fine roving at, say, 
ten per cent above cotton, and the balance of the card-room stock 
at five per cent per pound above cost of cotton. The full value of 
the cotton or stock in process should be charged to Inventory, and 
credited to Cotton account. More than that, we started four months 
ago with no work in process. We now have a mill full of partially 
manufactured stock. Some nearly ready for market. Some scarce- 
ly advanced from the raw material. We must make an estimate 
of the cost of labor bestowed on the unfinished material and make 
it a part of the inventory. Furthermore a considerable amount 
of power has been expended in bringing this cotton to its half-com- 
pleted stage. Also make an entry covering this, crediting Power 
and charging Inventory account for its estimated cost. There 
have been other expenses, but they are of less importance, not so 
easily estimated, and we shall neglect them." 

"This will make a decided difference in our statement," said 
the bookkeeper, "but I see that it is right and shall make entries 
to effect the change." 

This having been done, the mill showed results of the three 
months run as follows: 

Production — 406,840 lbs. No. 25 warp yarn, made and sold in warps. 
Cotton— 472,635 lbs. costing 9.80 c. per lb., or $46, 318.23 
Less waste on hand and sold, value 1,584.63 

Net cost cotton used 447733.60 10.96c 

Manufacturing Labor, Carding $3,091,90 .76c 

Spinning 3,336.08 .82 

Spooling 1,749.41 .43 

Warping 876,42 .24 

9,053.81 2.22 

Power Fuel 1,938.50 

Supplies 162.70 

Labor 361.40 



Insurance and Taxes 

Repairs and Supplies, Material 1,265.20 

Labor ■ 512.00 
Salaries and Expense 
Interest 
Freight 

Commission and Discounts 
Total cost per pound 



298 



2,462.60 


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As there was but one kind of product, and practically all of 
this, sold, it is only necessary to divide the items of expense by the 
product in pounds to obtain the cost per pound of each item, and 
to add these together, or to divide the total expense, to get the total 
cost per pound. 

Such simplicity of conditions is not often met with, however. 
Even yarn mills corhmonly have a diversity of product, and when 
another six months had rolled around, an inventory had been taken, 
and the accounts were ready to close, the bookkeeper called on the 
manager for directions, presenting the following statement of oper- 
ations, after having charged to Inventory the value of the cotton, 
and the labor on stock in process. 

Production op Enterprise Mills. 

Six months ending June 30th. 



Yarn Made and Sold No. 25 warp, Chains 


325,000 lbs 




^ Skein 


120,000 " 




No. 36 " 


50,000 " 




2 (< 

28 


175,000 " 




No. 25 " 


380,000 " 




^-^ Chain 


150,000 " 




2 11 

To' 


30,000 " 


Cloth Made, 


Print Cloth 64 x 64 


230,000 " 




1,460,000 lbs 


Costing: 






Cotton: $144,500.00. 


Value Waste Sold $6,100 




Labor, Carding 


$11,680.00 




Spinning 


13,140.00 




Spooling 


4,527.60 




Warping 


1,026.46 




Twisting 


3,230.00 




Eeeling 


2,950.00 




Dressing 


690.00 




Weaving 


7,228.94 




Packing Room 1,825.00 




Repairs 


3,000.00 




Power 


1,850.00 




Yard 


1,675.00 $52,823.00 





The manager called for the superintendent and showed him 
the sheet saying "We want now to find out what we have made on 
these yarns which we cannot do until we know what each cost. 
Can you show us how to get at it?" 

"Why I think it is easy to do that," was the answer; "the estab- 



299 



10 COST FINDING 



lished method of distributing cost is from the basis of the average 
number. First, ascertain what processes and expenses are com- 
mon to all the varieties of the product, such as Carding, Spinning, 
Repairs, Insurance, etc. These are termed Costs in Common. 
Second, separate the processes and expenses undergone by portions 
of the product alone, such as reehng for the skein yarn, sizing mate- 
rials for cloth, different commissions for yarn and cloth, etc., and 
find how many pounds have been submitted to each special cost. 
Third, ascertain the average number of the mill product submitted 
to each special cost. Fourth, divide the sum total of the costs in 
common by the total pounds produced. This is the cost per pound 
in common, of the average number. This cost per average number 
is thus distributed over the whole product: each kind of product 
bearing the cost per pound in proportion to the number of the yarn. 
The special costs are divided in the same manner over the kinds 
of product they affect, through the medium of the average number 
of the products affected," 

Following this method these costs must be rearranged, and some 
of them, as Power, Repairs, and Commissions must be divided. 
They are common to all, but Power and Repairs have a special 
cost for weaving, which we will estimate and set apart as a special 
cost, deducting it from the totals, and consider the remainders as 
common costs. 

The Manufacturing Costs may then be listed as follows: 



Costs Common to all, the Product of 


the Mill 




Labor, Carding 




111,680.00 


" Spiuning 




13,140.00 


" Packing Room 


$1,825.00 




Supplies, Packing Roora 


625.00 


2,450.00 


Labor, Repairs, 94% 


2,820.00 




Supplies, Repairs, 94% 


7,322.00 


10,142.00 


Labor, Yard 




1,675.00 


" Power, 96 % 


1,776.00 




Supplies, Power, 96 % 


7,055.00 


8,831.00 


Insurance and Taxes 




2,800.00 


Interest 




8,000.00 


Salaries and Office Expense 




2,900.00 


Expense Account 




975.00 



57,593.00 



300 



COST FINDING 11 



The total costs in common to all the product was $57,593.00 4- 
1,460,000 (pounds produced) = 3.9447 cents per pound of yarn of 
the average number (26.866). 

We proceed on the hypothesis that the cost of making yarns 
varies in the same ratio as the number. If the costs in common for 
No. 26.866 = 3.9447 cents per pound, then to find the cost for No. 
10 yarn 

26.866 : 3.9447 cents :: 10 : 1.468 cents per pound. 
In the same way we find the costs in common per pound to be: 



For No. 25 Yarn 


3.670 cents 


" 28 " 


4.110 " 


" 30 " 


4.404 " 


" 36 " 


5.285 " 



The special costs may be classified as follows, and the pounds 
subjected to each operation are tabulated for convenience of anal- 
ysis, with the exception of the special costs on print, which are dealt 
with in bulk. 

Special Cost on Chain Yarn, Ply Yarn, and Warp of Print 
Cloth 



Spooling 




$4,527.00 


Special Cost on Chain Warps and Warp 


of Print Cloth, 




Warping 




1,026.46 


Special Cost on Ply Yarns, Twisting 




3,230.00 


Special Cost on Skein Yaans, Reeling 




2,950.00 


Special Cost on Print Cloth 






Dressing 


$ 690.00 




Weaving 


•7,228.94 




Repairs, Weaving, Labor (6%) 


180.00 




" " Supplies (6%) 


468.00 




Power Weaving, Labor (4%) 


74.00 




" " Supplies (4%) 


295.00 




Sizing Materials 


506.00 


9,441.94 



The rule for finding the average number of a plain fabric, is 
based upon the principle of reducing the yarns to an equivalent 
weight of number one yarn, and then dividing again into the same 
number of threads, as the previous counts, but all of an equal size. 

The rule is expressed as follows: Divide the threads per inch 
of warp, by the number of the warp yarn, and add the quotient to 
the picks per inch divided by the number of the filling yarn. Divide 
the sum of the picks and sley by the sum of the two quotients, above 



8M 



12 



COST FINDING 



described, and the result will be the average size or number of the 
yarn. 

The same idea will enable us to find the average number of 
the mill product as follows: 



No. 10 Yarn 



30,000 lbs. X 10 300,000 
325,000 lbs. 
380,000 " 
150,000 " 855,000 lbs. X 25 21,375,000 



25 " Warp Chains 
25 " Skeins 
25 ' ' JV Chains 

28 " ^% Skeins 175,000 " 

28 " Print Cloth Warp 128,800 " 303,800 lbs. x 28 8,506,000 
30 " 3^^ Skeins 120,000 lbs, x 303,600,000 

36 " Skeins 50,000 " 

36 " Print Cloth Filling 101,200 " 151,200 lb s, x 36 5,443,200 

1,460,000 lbs. 
39,224,600 -=- 1,460,000 = 26.8662 = Average number spun. 



39,224,600 





Spooling 


Warping 


Twisting 


Reeling 


^Tj Skein Yarn as -^^ 


30,000 lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


" s 
TO 






30,000 


30,000 


25 Warp Chains 


325,000 


325,000 






^\ Chain as ^V 


150,000 










150,000 


150,000 


150,000 




25 Skeins 








380,000 


A " ^^ aV 


175,000 






• 


11 






175,000 


175,000 


28 Print Cloth Warp 


128,800 


128,000 






s\ Skein as J^ 


120,000 








11 2 
"3TJ 






120,000 


120,000 


36 Skein 








50,000 




1,078,800 lbs. 


603,800 lbs. 


475,000 lbs. 


755,000 lbs. 



The cost per pound of each of these operations on each variety 
of product is estimated after the same manner, as the cost in com- 
mon. This we will illustrate in the cost of spooling. It will be 
noticed that the two-ply warps undergo spooling twice, first as sin- 
gle yarn, and again as double yarn. In determining costs, ply 



302 



COST FINDING 13 



yarns are considered single yarns of equal weight, that is -/^s is 
treated as single 14s. 

SPOOLING 

No. 10 Yam 30,000 lbs. x 10 = 300,000 

25 Warp Chain 325,000 lbs. 

A Chains as J^ 150,000 " 470,000 " X 25 =11,875,000 

^^ " " -i^ 150,000 " X 12.5 = 1,875,000 

•^3 Skein as ^V 175,000 " 

28 Print Cloth Warp 128,800 " 303,800 " X 28 = 8,506,400 

3^0 Skein as gV 120,000 " X 30 = 3,600,000 

Total Pounds Spooled 1,078,800 " 26,156,400 
26,156,400 ^ 1,078,800 = 24.246 Average Number Yarn Spooled. 

The total cost of spooling was $4,527.00 which divided by 1,078,800 
equals the cost per pound of spooling the average number or .4196 cents 
per pound for spooling No. 24.246 yarn. 

.4196 cents -^ 24.246 = .017306 cents cost per unit of number, or cost 
per hank of spooling number one yarn. 

.017306 X 10 = .17306 cents cost of spooling No. 10 Yarn . 
.017306 X 25 = .43265 " " " " *' 25 " 

.017306 X 12.5 = .21632 " " " " " -f^ " 

.017306 X 28 = 48457 " " " " " 28 " 

. .017306 X 30 =.51918 " " " " " 30 " 

The correctness of these figures can be proved as follows: 

30,000 lbs. of No. 10 Yarn Spooled at .17306 Cost % 51.92 
475,000 " " " 25 " " " .43265 " 2,055.08 

150,000 " " " A " " " -21632 " 324.58 

303,800 " " " 28 " " " .48457 " 1,472.12 

120,000 " " " 30 " <' " .51918 " 623.02 

14,526.62 

By the same methods we find the cost of the special costs of 
Warping, Twisting and Reeling to be as follows: 

Cost of Warping No. 25 Yarn .1886 cents per pound 
u i( 11 " _2„ " .0943 " " " 

(1 11 (1 11 OQ " ^11*^ " " " 

Cost of Twisting No. y^ Yarn .2573 cents per pound 

" " " " A " .6434 " " " 

It 11 11 " _s_ 11 .7206 " " ' " 

(< 11' (1 " -2- " .7720 " " *' 



303 



14 



COST FINDING 



w f^ J 

^ 5 J 
o <: K 

mOI CO 

i^co CO 
Ph Lo -^ 



tc 



o 5 












o g 

CO (2^ 







tn 




CO 
1—1 

LO 


o 

CO 


CO 


CO 


Ol 


(M 


oq 





O CO CD ^ CO 
t^ CO -H Ol -^ 

CD ^ CM O CO 



cn 


CO 


t^ 


CO 


CD 


t^ 


lO 


Of) 


^ 


T— 1 


<M 


o 



!>. 1—1 



o 


CD 


00 


CO 


1—1 


•* 


CO 


o 


CO 


o 


1— 1 


T-H 







0) 

> 


13 
O 

■ a 


a; 


3 

o 

ft 








.2 

6 






<a 


o 












-*-> 






m 

OS 


OS 

fir 


" 


&0 


bn 




bn 




>► 


1=1 


fl 




a 


a 


isD 


a 


,9 


o- 
a 


33 


OD 


"o 


- 


a 




a 


CO 






CO 


02 


o 




(53 


^ 
H 




a> 


o 


s 





O 






^ 


rt 





be 



fe 



O &H 



304 



COST FINDING 15 



Cost of Reeling No. -f^ Yarn .0825 cents per pound 



2 

^8 


II 


.2310 


2 

■30 


u 


.2475 


25 


11 


.4125 


36 


II 


.5940 



Cost of Special Operations for Print Cloth 230,000 lbs. $9,441.94. 
$9,441.94 -- 230,000 =4.1052 cents per pound. 

The stock used in these yarns and goods is the same, excepting 
that the -j\ Skein Yarn has been made one-half of cotton and one- 
half card strippings. 

The balance of Cotton account showing the cost of cotton for 
the mill is therefore divided by the total product, less one-half the 
amount of -^-q skein made. 

1,460,000 - 15,000 lbs. = 1,445,000 lbs. 

$144,500.00 - 1,445,000 = 10 cents per pound for cotton 
for each pound of yarn made, excepting -^-q skeins. The y^^- skeins 
were one-half strippings worth 60 % of the cost of cotton, or for 
the whole amount of yarn made: 

15,000 lbs. @ 10 cents for cotton $1,500.00 

15,000 " " 60% of 10 cents 900.00 

30,000 lbs, at an average price of 8 cents = $2,400.00 

The value of the strippings used should therefore be added 
to the value of waste sold. That much of waste used not having 
been credited to waste account, previously, it should now be credited 
to the products made from clean cotton. 

A deduction for the value of waste may now be made from the 
cost of cotton. 

Waste sold $6,100.00 plus $900.00 waste also made but used = 
$7,000.00. $7,000 - 1,445,000 = .484 cents credit to cost cotton 
per pound of product for waste sold. (Only one-half of this per 
pound of -^-Q skein.) 

The only two items now remaining undistributed are the Freight 
on product and Commissions. 

The freight paid in this case is more on the print cloth than on 
the yarn, per pound, being 65 cents per hundred, and the balance 
divided among the other products, equally. Of commissions it 
should be said, before the division of the cost, that those on the print 



305 



16 



COST FINDING 



cloth amount to above 2 % of the cost, the No. 25 chain warps were 
sold direct, and no commissions were paid on these, while the balance 
amounting to about 9.85 % was divided among the other products 
on a percentage basis of the cost as shown below. 

At this stage the proof of the accuracy of the mathematical 
work may be had thus: 



30,000 lbs. of 


■^^ Skein at 10.330 cents 


per pound, cost 


$ 3,099.00 


380,000 ' 




25 " " 14.189 








53,918.20 


325,000 ' 




25 Chain " 14 399 








46,796.75 


150,000 ' 




^-^ " " 15.163 








22,744.50 


175,000 ' 




^% Skein " 15.654 








27,394.50 


120,000 ' 




-,% " " 16.050 








19,260.00 


60,000 ' 




36 " " 15.986 








7,983.00 


230,000 ' 




Print Cloth " 19.286 








44,361.80 


* 












$255,547.75 


Cost of C 


)otto] 


a 




$144,500. 






Less value of Waste sold 




6,100. 














$138,400. 






Labor 








52,823. 






General 


Charges, without Commissionfe 


34,746. 




$225,969.00 



This discrepancy might be avoided by carrying 
the work to further decimals. 



421.25 



The bookkeeper having worked out the costs of manufactur- 
ing as above under the supervision of the superintendent, the proc- 
esses and results were shown to the manager. The costs of some 
of the yarns were more and of others less than he expected, and after 
an examination of the tables, the manager once more sent for the 
superintendent. 

"I have examined the way you get at the cost of the different 
numbers of yarn, etc., and think I understand it, and believe it is 
about right. But there are one or two inquiries I wish to make. 
First, the idea underlying the whole operation seems to me a mere 
assumption that the cost will vary as the number or fineness of the 
yarn. This may be so or it may not. I do not see anything to prove 
it. How do you know this, or don't you know it? There may be 
some reason for believing so; if there is, I would like to know it, but 
I confess that it seems to be taking a great deal for granted." 

"The average number system of cost finding," replied the 
superintendent, "was not original with me. For many years it 



59e 



COST FINDING 17 



has been used by mill men as a convenient and ready way of reck- 
oning costs and making estimates on cotton goods. I have been 
told that early New England manufacturers adopted it after a care- 
ful examination in detail of the cost of various operations on dif- 
ferent organizations of goods. I suppose they were satisfied of 
its approximate accuracy. Some justification is afforded by such 
figures as the following, which represent actual results in a large 
mill in New Hampshire for the six months ending May 2, 1885. 
This company operated three mills, making various organizations, 
and you will note that the total manufacturing labor costs vary very 
nearly as the average numbers. In fact, do not vary from this stand- 
ard more than the same mill might vary its own record in the chang- 
ing vicissitudes of continuous operation." 

No. 1 Mill No. 2 Mill No. 3 Mill Average 

Average No. of Product 26.83 22.93 18.12 21.64 

Labor, Carding 1.131 cts. 1.004 cts. .757 cts. .919 cts. 

" Warp Spinning .566 " .394 " .331 " .406 

" Filling " .465 " .438 " .385 " .420 

" Dressing etc. .517" .454" .348" .420 

" Weaving 2.779 " 2.527 " 1.825 " 2.260 

058 " ' 4.817 " 3.646 " 4.425 

Based on the cost of the average number for the whole plant, the costs 
would be as follows: 

5.487 4.680 . 3.705 

By these figures it will be seen that the variations of the actual cost 
from the estimated cost by the average number is as follows. 

No. 18.12 .059 cents per pound 
" 22.93 .128 " " " 
" 26.83 .029 " " " 

The greatest variation is therefore less than three-tenths of one per cent. 

" Further than this, I think I can show you why this method has 
some basis of reason in it. As you are well aware, a most -impor- 
tant element in the cost of any product is the amount that can be 
produced in a given time. If I were spinning, say, number 30 yarn, 
and some one should come along with an invention which would 
enable me, other factors remaining the same, to double the produc- 
tion per spindle, the cost of spinning would be reduced nearly one- 
half. So, if I should change to a coarser yarn the production would 



307 



18 COST FINDING 



be increased, and the cost per pound decreased. Not proportion- 
ately decreased, but in nearly that ratio. As the amount of product 
increases, however, there is so much more material to be handled, 
so that there is more expense for labor in attendance and handling. 
"If you examine the tables of production of spinning frames 
you will find that the pounds per spindle decrease as the yarn grows 
finer, in a ratio somewhat exceeding the reverse ratio of the change 
in number. For example, one of the production tables in common 
use gives the production in pounds per spindle per day as follows: 

No. 8 Yarn " 1.082 lbs. 

"16 " .497 " 

" 24 " -294 " 

" 32 " .200 " 

" 40 " .152 " 

"It will be noticed that 8 (yarn) is one-fifth of 40 (yarn) but 
the production of JSTo, 8 is rather more than five times as great. 
This increase in ratio approximately covers the increased cost of 
attendance and handling of the coarser yarns. It is thus that it 
comes about that the cost of manufacture varies in nearly the 
same ratio as the number. To be sure the spinning frame is not 
the only machine in a mill, but it is to a considerable degree the 
gauge of the production, and the elementary principle holds in all 
departments that the higher the number of yarn the greater the 
cost of production and manipulation. Labor Costs are not the 
only ones affected by production. The cost of Power, Taxes, 
Insurance, Salaries, Repairs, Interest, and some other items of 
expense are similarly affected by the rate of production, 

"The same New Hampshire mill I have mentioned had a prac- 
tice of charging Interest, Insurance, Taxes, General Expense and 
Salaries at an equal amount per pound whether the average num- 
ber were 17 or 27, and whether the production were consequently 
greater or less. This seems to me jdenying the principle in its 
most evident application. For an increase or loss in production 
would not affect the gross amount of these expenses, but the 
more pounds produced the more to divide them among and pro- 
portionately the less per pound," 

"I concede the force of much you have said," answered the 
manager, "and I imagine that for numbers of a moderate range 
such a system might be very convenient and as eflicient as any 



308 



COST FINDING 19 



that could easily be devised. I can also see that it might find a 
widespread and proper application in mills under the circum- 
stances apparently prevailing in the mill you instanced where there 
are a number of organizations not widely dissimilar, and without 
a wide range in the numbers of yarns spun. Its weakness lies in 
there being no means of proving its results, no certainty that its 
limitations have been observed, and no recognition of varying con- 
ditions. 

"As an illustration of my first objection, you cannot, in any 
way, prove that the costs of Reeling, as distributed by you over the 
yarn made into skeins the last six months, are just. In fact they 
do not very well agree with the prices per pound we paid for the 
work. This also illustrates my second point. Further, I do not 
suppose you would claim that making number 100 yarn would 
cost just ten times as much as making number 10 yarn. That 
is, there is a limit to the average number method of reckoning 
costs, 

"And lastly, suppose two sateens, woven, one with a warp face, 
and another of a similar organization but with a filling face. 
They would both have the same average number, but would both 
cost the same ? And two fabrics of utterly dissimiliar organiza- 
tion might have the same average number and according to your 
theory would have the same cost per pound, which I do not think 
probable. 

"Furthermore, the changes and extensions we propose in this 
plant will bring in such varying factors, that our past methods 
will be crude and incomplete. It has been so, to some extent, al- 
ready, for our weaving has introduced an element which along with, 
and in addition to, our yarn, makes the separation of expenses of 
operating the departments a problem for serious study. 

"I have been thinking and enquiring about this matter for 
some time and I propose in another six months to install a system 
by which I may hnow what our goods cost, prove the estimates to 
my own satisfaction, and challenge any one to dispute their accu- 
racy. 

"In the first place, I propose to separate the Manufacturing and 
the Distributing expenses. We have been fortunate in our short 
experience in disposing of our product as fast as made, but this 



309 



20 COST FINDING 



will not always be our liappy lot. Under these past circumstances 
the expense of Freight and Commission might, with fairness to 
the results, be considered costs along with other expenses, but 
they are different in their nature, belonging to the commercial de- 
partment of our business along with such charges as advertising 
and bad debts. If we, in the next six months, find ourselves with 
a lot of unsold goods, on which we have paid no freight or com- 
missions, the amount of these charges which we have paid must 
not be charged into manufacturing, with labor and supplies, but 
kept in a separate account. 

"We shall have a plant selling a part of its product as yarn, 
and weaving the remainder of its yarn into cloth. We may even 
be compelled to purchase some yarns. Under these conditions the 
apportionment of the expense of Eepairs, Supplies, Power, Insur- 
ance, Taxes, etc., should not be left to guesswork, even though we 
style the guess an estimate, but should have some basis in ac- 
counting of the amount chargeable to each department. This the 
method we have just followed does not afford." 

The manager at once put in operation a series of reports for 
the purpose of affording detailed information regarding the cost of 
each operation, which were placed on record, and made a basis for 
making up the estimates of cost at the end of another six months' 
period. 

In the meantime there had been completed some changes and 
additions for the purpose of putting a part of the mill on colored 
w^ork, and a coarse cheviot was made in this portion of the mill, 
so as to utilize the waste. 

Product of the Enterprise Cotton Mill 
Six months ending Dec. 29, was as follows: 



102,000 lbs. 


Cheviot 


160,000 " 


Print Cloths 


250,000 " 


Madras 


100,000 " 


1-25 long chain Warp Yarns 


120,000 " 


1-28 Skeins 


80,000 " 


2-28 " 


812,000 " 


Total 



810 



COST FINDING 



21 



The organization of the cloths was as follows: 



Cheviot .... 
Print Cloth 
Madras .... 



Warp 
Yarn 


Filling 
Yarn 


Sley 


Picks 


Widths 


Yds. 
Per lb. 


Warp 


% 
Filling 


8 


12 


66 


45 


29 


2.15 


70 


30 


28 


36 


64 


64 


28' 


7.00 


56 


44 


25 


32 


56 


60 


28 


6.00 


60 


40 



Sizing 

on 
Warp 

6 
6 
6 



The weight of the cloth given above is as it comes from the 
looms. There are several factors tending to modify this weight, 
as compared with the weight of the yarn originally consumed in 
the making of the cloth. 

The principal of these are, the weight added by sizing, the 
effects of coloring and bleaching, and the loss in waste. 

If the mills were making but one grade of goods, these would 
be of no special importance. But comparing the weight of woven 
goods with the weight of yarns, it is worth while to consider 
whether some allowance should not be made in order to put the 
yarns sold on a just footing with the cloth woven. 

As concerns the sizing, the weight of starch and other com- 
pounds used equals about six percent of the weight of yarn 
dressed. This is equivalent to approximately four percent of the 
weight of the cloth. And if no other factor entered into the 
calculation it would be necessary to reduce the weight of warp 
yarn used in weaving by this six percent, in order to place it on a 
parity with other yarns. But since spooling, in the operation of 
warping, beaming, dressing, drawing-in and weaving, there has 
been a further loss of weight in waste. This loss has been greater 
on the warp yarns than on the filling, because of the more hand- 
ling of the chains and the chafing of the warp. This loss is 
greatest on the yarns which have been sized, and may have 
amounted to one and one-half percent in weave room sweepings 
alone; a loss partly of warp and partly of sizing. On the whole, 
the waste in operations subsequent to spooling, is sufficient to 
largely offset the gain in sizing, and we make no allowance for 
the weight added in sizing. 

Furthermore, dyeing and bleaching affect the weight of cot- 
ton. The madras is largely white with colored stripes. This 
white yarn or cotton is bleached, which causes a loss in weight. 



811 



22 COST FINDING 



But there has been an increase of weight in dyeing the colored 
yarn, varying according to the nature of the dye, and the depth of 
shade. In this instance we will estimate that one offsets the 
other, so that no allowance need be made either way for dyeing or 
bleaching;. In the case of the cheviots, there is no bleached stock 
of consequence used in them, but the colors, both warp and filling, 
are mostly heavy or dark ones, and it is thought well to make an 
allowance of two percent from the weight of the cloth, in estimat- 
ing the amount of gray yarn or cotton used in their manufacture. 

The cheviots for purposes of cost estimate will therefore be 
100,000 lbs. instead of 102,000 lbs. 

The cheviots were a coarse colored fabric, manufactured to 
utilize card strippings and flyings. The yarn being composed of 
about seventy percent waste of this character, with some cleanings 
from picker motes. These were dyed in the loose cotton or waste, 
and spun thus, into colored yarns. The goods were finished and 
shipped in bales. 

The print cloths were the same organization as before and 
shipped in rolls. 

The madras were a medium grade fabric, with bleached and 
colored warp yarns. The bleached warp was spun from bleached 
cotton, but the colored warp was spun in the gray and made into 
long chain warps, dyed, beamed again, and dressed on a slasher. 
A portion of the warp yarn for these goods w^as of printed yarn, 
and as the mill did not care to purchase a machine for this pur- 
pose, the yarn was bought, printed, in long chain warps, amounting 
to 10,000 pounds. A portion of these goods, also, was woven on 
drop box looms for the purpose of making check patterns. The 
filling in all the stripes was bleached, and this with the bleached 
and colored filling in the checked patterns was spun from bleached 
or colored cotton. Only a small amount of colored filling was 
used, as the filling stripes of color were mostly small. The warp 
in these goods was irregular, some of the patterns having small 
cords where several warp threads were woven as one. 

For the goods described above, and the, yarns sold, the follow- 
ing yarns were required: 

No. 8 Yarn, Cheviot Warp 70,000 lbs. 

'' 12 " " FUling 30,000 " 



312 



COST FINDING 23 



No. 25 " Madras Warp 150,000 lbs. 

25 " Warps Sold 100,000 " 

25 " Total 250,000 lbs. 

28 " Print Cloth Warp 89,600 lbs. 

28 " 1-28 Skeins 120,000 " 

28 " 2-28 Skeins 80,000 " 



28 " Total 289,000 

32 Filling for Madras 190,000 

36 " " Print Cloth 70,400 



810,000 lbs. 



We may divide the cost into three divisions, 

1st, The Stock or Material. 

2nd, The Labor in Manufacturing. 

3rd, The General Charges, Supplies, Power, Etc. 

We will take these up in the order named. 
The Stock or Material put in process for these yarns and 
goods v^^as, as previously stated, 

1920 Bales of Cotton, 903,614 lbs. costing $72,289.12 

77 " " Strippings, 35,000 " " 1,820.00 

No. 25 Printed Yarn 10,000 " " 2,500.00 

Passing by for the present the Printed Yarn, we recall that 
seventy percent of the cheviot, and all of the other output of the 
mill, are made from the same general quality of cotton. We may 
therefore separate the stock used into these two classes, and on the 
assumption that the proportion of waste made has been the same 
in both classes, proceed to find the percentage of waste, and then 
work back by means of this to estimate the amount of waste and 
cotton originally put in process, in each class of stock. For it 
has not been practicable under the circumstances to keep an ac- 
curate weight of it. We then approximate the value of the waste 
used which was made in the mill, and credit the cost of clean cot- 
ton with this amount. The waste used has been from clean un- 
colored cotton. This value of the waste sold is then credited to 
each class. This value is either divided according to records of 
waste made, or on a percentage basis in absence of data. 

The details are worked out as follows: 

The Stock in process, Dec. 29 94,100 lbs. 

" " " July 30 76,700 " 

Excess Stock in Process Dec. 29 17,400 lbs. 

Product (Less Yarn Purchased) 800,000 " 

817,400 lbs. 



313 



24 COST FINDING 



Cotton Put in Process 903,614 lbs. 

Waste Purchased and Put in Process 35,000 " 
Total Material Put in Process 938,614 lbs. 

Less Product Plus Gain in Process 817,400 " 
Gross Waste 121,214 lbs. 

Gross Waste Equals 14.83% of 817,400 lbs. 

Product of Cheviot 100^000 lbs. 

In Process Dec. 29, Cheviot Stock 9,000 " 

109,000 lbs. 

109,000 + 14.83% = 125,164 lbs. estimate/1 amount of stock, made up 
of good cotton (30%), purchased waste and in the mill (70%) both together 
making the 125,164 lbs. estimated as started in process for the cheviots. 

Total Cheviot Stock 125,164 lbs. 

Less Good Cotton (30%) ' 37.550 " 

Waste Used— Purchased, and Made (70%) 87,614 lbs. 

Waste Purchased 35,000 " 

Waste Made and Used hv Cheviots 52,614 lbs. 

Stock in Process July 1, all Good Cotton 76,700 lbs. $ 8,437.00 

Cotton Put in Process, for Goods other than Cheviot 866,064 " 69,285.12 

942,464 lbs. 177,722.12 

Cotton Used for Cheviot 37,000 lbs. $3,004.00 

Waste Purchased 35,000 " 1,820.00 

Made and Used 52,614 " 2,735.93 

125,164 lbs. $7,559.93 

" Made and Used, Cr 52,614 " 2,735.93 

890,150 lbs. 74,986.19 

On Hand in Process Dec. 29 9,000 " 543.60 85,100 " 7,488.80 

116,164 lbs. 7,016.33 805,050 lbs. 67,497.39 

Waste accounted for and not 16,164 " 323.28 105,050 " 2,101.00 

Total net Cost of Stock 100,000 lbs. $6,693.05 700,000 lbs. $65,396.39 

By these processes we arrive at 6.693 cts. per lb. as cost of 
material for Cheviot, and (65,396.36-^-700,000) 9.342 cts. for all 
other product, excepting Madras, to which there is a further charge 
for 10,000 lbs. of Printed Yarn costing $2,500.00, used only on 
this work. This is equivalent to 1.00 cts. per pound of all Madras; 
but as only 8,000 lbs were consumed, 2,000 pounds being in pro- 
cess, the cost for yarn was .800 cts. per pound. 

This yarn has been neglected heretofore, because in this in- 
stance it is a small amount in proportion, and the waste made 
from it, is inconsiderable. If large amounts of yarn were purchased 
in different shapes, it might be necessary to separate the different 
departments, charging to each its material used and waste made 
and crediting the output. 



814 




KNOWLES SWIVEL LOOM FOR WEAVING A SURFACE FIGURE ON A 
PLAIN GROUND 

Crompton & Knowles Loom Works 



COST FINDING 



25 



THE MANUFACTURING LABOR 

The basis for the apportionment of the labor cost, consists of 
a series of weekly reports from each department, covering the 
iamount of machinery running and the amount of product, and the 
cost of each operation as computed immediately upon the making 
up of the pay-roll. These reports are tabulated, and at the end of 
the six months, or other period, when the costs are made up, their 
totals are compared with the amount of work ultimately produced 
by the mill. The costs are based upon the production of the 
room; but on account of the loss by waste and other causes, the 
final output of the mill, upon which the cost must be reckoned, is 
less than the room product. The reported costs are, therefore, less 
than the actual costs, and are subject to the revision noted above. 

Pay-rolls are subject to change, and the total labor cost of each 
department on the reports, is corrected by the actual amount ex- 
pended. 

This is exemplified in the case of the Card Room as follows: 
A single weekly report is shown, and the summary of the work 
for the six months. 

ENTERPRISE COTTON MILLS 
Cost of Roving for week ending Oct. 3d, '06. 



Hank Roving . 



Fly Frame Spindles Run 



Pounds Roving Made . 



Picking 

Carding and Drawing . . 

Slubber 

Inter. Frames 

Fly Frames 

General Room Expense , 



Total Wages. 



Cost per pound, cents . 



1.00 


1.50 


5.20 








3180 


1272 


25400 


$ 2.25 
$ 6.00 
$ 1.50 
$ 2.60 

$ 1.60 


.90 
2.52 

.90 
1.50 

.75 


18.00 
50.40 
28.60 
45.16 
77.48 
41.20 


$13.95 


6.57 


260.84 


.440 


.517 


.103 



6.00 



4770 

3.37 
9.45 
7.85 
11.10 
19.92 
8.20 

59.89 



.152 



Summary for the Six Months 



Hank Roving 


1.00 


1.50 


5.20 


6.00 


Total pounds made, from reports 


80,720 


32,800 


650,900 


109,200 


Total pounds yarn and cloth 










from above 


70,000 


30,000 


600,000 


100,000 


Add Inventory- Dec. 29 


6,100 


900 


58,800 


3,300 




76,100 


30,900 


658,800 


103,300 



Deduct Inventory June 30 



54,700 



76,100 30,900 604,100 103,300 



815 



26 COST FINDING 



The sum of the cost from 
the weekly reports, during [ $350.16 $156.58 $6,680.27 $1,230.26 



the six months is 

These make a total of 
$8,417.27. The corrections 
and changes in the card- 
room payroll after leaving 

as%rmakeX^co?reSe5 ^348.16 $155.68 $6,536.36 11,223.16 

total as shown by the ac- 
count books $8,263.36 and 
the necessary correction re- 
duces the costs to 

The revised cost of making the roving should be obtained 

next, and if these total costs are divided by the sum of the goods 

sold plus the increase of the stock in process the results will give 

the actual cost per pound. 



$ 348.16 
155.68 



76100 = .457c Cost per Pound of No. 1. Hank Roving 
30900 = .504 " " " " " 1.50 " 



6536.30 ^ 604100 = 1.082 " " " " " 5.20 

1223.16 -H 103300 = 1.184 " " " " " 6. 

The value of the labor on the roving and yarns in process at 

the end of the six months is now computed. 

6100 lbs. 1. Hank Roving @ .457c = $ 28.38 

900 " 1.50 " " .504 = 4.53 

58800 " 5.20 " " 1.082 = 636.21 

3300 " 6. " " 1.184 = 39-07 

$708.19 
This, with the value of labor in subsequent operations be- 
stowed on the stock in 'process, as disclosed by the inventory, is 
credited to Manufacturing Labor in closing the account books, or 
retained as the balance of the account, before charging 'off the 
remainder into Manufacturing Account. 

The further uses of the cost of rovings in the yarn and cloth 
output of the mill, will be illustrated later. 

A table should be prepared showing the stock in process in 
each department, of the amount of stock of each kind on hand, both 
at the beginning and end of the period, but is omitted from this 
illustration. 

The summaries of the Labor Costs in each department or 
operation must be treated in a similar manner. It will not always 
be the case that the yarn on hand at the end of the period will be 
greater than at the beginning. They are as often less. By the 
system outlined above this will adjust itself. 



m.6 



COST FINDING 



27 



It will be noticed that the pounds of roving made, obtained 
from the weekly reports, vary about six percent from the roving 
accounted for by the product of the mill plus the inventory, but 
in later operations where there is less subsequent waste, this differ- 
ence should be considerably reduced. 

TABLE Q. 
ENTERPRISE HILLS. SPINNING ROOM REPORT. 

Cost per pound of Spiauing for week ending September 22. 



Number of Yarn 


28 
Warp 

8,000 


8 
Warp 


12 

Fill 


35 
Warp 

5,600 


33 

Fill 


36 

Fill 


Total 


Spindles Run 


448 


234 


3,600 


3,688 


20,320 


No. of Pounds Spun 


11,200 


2,600 


900 


9,600 


4,200 


3.000 


31,500 


Wages 
Spinners. 


$65.80 
23.40 
33.48 


$3 60 
2.06 
2.83 


$3.07 
1.87 
1.80 


$40.45 
14.36 
34.67 


$31.60 
7.30 
13.50 


$18 00 
7.20 
9,60 




Doffers . . 




General Room Expense 








Total Wages. 


$121.68 
1.086 


$8.43 
.324 


$5.74 
.638 


$79.48 
.828 


$42.30 
1.010 


$34.80 
1.160 


$392.43 


Cost per pound, cts 





TABLE H. 
ENTERPRISE MILLS. WEAVING ROOM REPORT. 

Cost per pound for weaving, week ending September 22, 1906. 



Kind of Goods 


Cheviot 


Print 


Madras 

Plain 

Looms 


Madras 
Check 
Looms 


Total 


Looms Run 


27 


150 


150 


75 


402 


Pounds Woven 


4,000 


6,400 


7,350 


3,333 


21,083 


Cuts Woven 


200 


3,100 


735 


330 








Wages 
Weavers 


147.90 
6.10 


$175.60 
22.83 


$230.85 
31.15 


$119.54 
29.92 




Other Hands.. 








Total Wages 


154.00 


$198.43 


$262.00 


$149.46 


$663.89 


Cost per pound, cts 


1.35 


3.10 


3.56 


4.48 









Weekly cost reports of the same general discription are made 
for each department. Samples of these for the spinning and 
weave rooms are given in Tables G and H. 

Passing over for the present the further consideration of 
Labor Costs, we take up tlie cost of Repairs, Power, etc., and find 
the following charges to be divided among the product and the 
inventoried stock. 



317 



28 COST FINDING 



Labor 


Repairs Machinery 


$1368.20 




" 


Boilers and Engine Room 


1286.93 




" 


Repairs Buildings 


60.00 




ti 


Watch 


350.00 




ti 


Electric Lights 


212.50 




11 


Moisteners 


20. 


% 3,297.63 


Materials 


Repairs Machinery 


$1182.37 




" 


" Buildings 


120. 




" 


Fuel 


7000. 




" 


Fire Protection 


70. 




(1 


Supplies, Store Room 


1576.32 




" 


" Spiecial 


6895.33 


16,844.02 


Taxes 


" 




5,500. 


Insurance 






900. 


Salaries and Office Expense 




4,000. 


Expense, Miscellaneous 




500. 


Yard 






600. 


Interest 




- 


3,600 



135.241.65 

In addition to these there should be a sum set aside or 
charged off for depreciation of the Machinery and Buildings which 
will be estimated later. 

An analysis of these expenses for the purpose of classification 
will disclose that they may be fairly grouped in three general 
divisions. 

First: Those which are incurred in maintaining the plant in 
good repair and condition, protecting it from danger of fire and 
robbery and providing the necessary supplies for operation, Main- 
tenance, Protection and Supplies. 

Second: Expenses incurred in the generation and transmis- 
sion of Power, and of Steam for other uses than Power, 

Third: The cost of administration of the general conduct of 
the business. 

Under the heading Maintenance and Supplies, we collect first 
the cost of Maintenance in general, dividing between Machinery 
and Buildings and ejccluding the particular repairs of which a sep- 
arate account has been kept. These include. Taxes on the value 
of Machinery, Insurance on Machinery, Fire Protection and 
Watchmen in their proportion, and Depreciation. 

For the purpose of subdivision of these expenses make a de- 
tailed list of machinery in the form shown in Table M, giving in 
appropriate columns the value of each machine, and of the total 



818 



COST FINDING 29 



value for each operation. By this means we find the grand total 
value of machinery to be $250,000. A conservative estimate for 
depreciation may be set at four percent, or $10,000. This com- 
pletes the items of General Maintenance, which are placed in the 
box at the head of the columns, and foot up |15,000. This 
amount is divided upon the machinery in proportion to the value 
of each operation. The percentage this bears to the total is set in 
Column 5, and the amount of the corresponding percentages in 
Column 6. This adds up the same amount as the sum in the box 
at the top, showing the work to be correct. 

We next take the items chargeable to the Maintenance of 
Buildings, including the furnishings. These items of expense are 
made up of the due proportion of those which have Just now been 
charged to Machinery, with the addition of Repairs in Material 
and Labor, an account which is supposed to have been kept. In 
the distribution of these items, first set down the approximate 
floor space occupied by each operation, next the estimated or 
known cost per square foot of construction, adding the accessories, 
automatic sprinklers, humidifiers, piping, wiring, etc. The cost 
of building will vary considerably, and some departments will 
have more or less furnishings than others. The Dye House will 
have a cost for piping, but no humidifiers, and the store house will 
have neither one, nor wiring for lights. The floor space is then 
multiplied by the total cost per square foot, and the products put 
down in Column 13. By the footing of this column, the total 
value of construction, etc., is found to be $100,000. To the items 
charged at the head of the column, we now add one percent for 
depreciation, making a total of $3,000. The percentage of this 
amount to each operation is then added in Column 14, and the 
actual charge, obtained by taking the percentage of $3,000, is set 
in Column 15. This column is then footed to prove the work 
correct. 

In the Repair Shops, a detailed account has been kept through 
the six months of the labor and material expended or used for each 
department and operation. (Total Labor $1,094.56. Total Ma- 
terial $1,074.88.) This cannot include the supervision of the 
work ($273.64), so that at the end of the period, having ascertained 
the percentage which the whole bears to tho hitherto recorded eost in 



819 



30 



TABLE M. 



MACHINERY. 


BUILDINGS. 


Taxes 


. $ 4,000 
700 
50 
250 

. 10,000 

$15,000 


■Rpnairq 5 Material. 
Repairs ^ Labor.... 

Taxes 

Insurance 

Fire Protection 

Watch 

Depreciation 1%.. .. 


.$ 130 
160 


Insurance 


1,500 


Repairs Fire Protection 

Watch 

Depreciation 4% 


. 100 
20 
100 




. 1,000 
$3,000 



Operation. 



Description. 



Price. 



Total 
Cost. 



Per 
Cent. 



Distrib. 



$§5 




m 


>> 


hfl 




1.2 




a 
"p. 


m 


U 


<m K 


Ph 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Picking.. 


2 Openers with Feeders. . . 

3 Intermediates 


81,000.00 
800.00 
800.00 














$6,800 


3.720 


408.00 


4,000 


1.20 


.03 






.01 




3 Finishers 


WastePicking 
Carding and 


1 Waste Picker & Feeder. 
44 Cards. 


750 
37,380 


.300 

14.952 


45.00 
2,343.80 


800 
8,200 


1.20 
.70 


.03 
.03 


■!63 




.01 
.01 


675.00 

80.00 

13.50 

9.50 

6.75 

- 3.50 

3.25 

200.00 

325.00 

4.35 

1,100.00 

350.00 

1,200.00 

100.00 


Drawing 


96 Del. Drawing 

6 Slubbers, 313 sp 

8 Intermediates, 913 sp. . , 
24 Fly Frames. 4,032 sp. . . 

90 Frames, 21,600 sp 

10 Spoolers, , 1,300 sp 

15 Reels 


Slubbers 

Intermediates 
Fly Frames... 

Spinning. 

Spooling 

Reeling 


4,312 
8,714 
37,216 
75,600 
3,900 
3,000 
3,2.50 
6,800 

2,750 


1.685 
3.486 
10.886 
30.240 
1.560 
1.300 
1 300 
2.723 

■■■i.'ioo 


253.75 
533.90 
1,633.96 
4,536.00 
334.00 
180.00 
195.00 
408.00 

■ ■ ■ ■ 'I'eb'.oo 


1,500 
2,500 
7,500 
31,000 
2,600 
2,000 
3..500 
2,000 

■l,'5^0'o' 


.70 
.70 

.70 
.70 
.70 
.70 
.70 
.70 

i'.ob 


.03 
.(3 
.03 
.03 
.03 
.03 
.03 
.03 


.03 
.03 
.03 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 
.04 




.01 
.01 

.01 

.01 
.01 
.01 
.01 
.01 

6i 


Warping 

Twisting 

Dyeing Stock. 


10 Warpers. 


10 Frames, 1,600 sp 

1 R. S. Dyeing Machine . . 
1 Extractor 




1 Drying Machine 

1 Fan and Piping 
























Cotton Bins. 




















Dyeing Chain. 


1 Boiling Box. 


650.00 
2.50.00 
250.00 
250.00 
1,000.00 






















1 Doubler 


■■■3,156 


"■i!266 


■ ■ ■ ■ i^89'.66 


■2,000 


i'M 


"M 






.01 




4 Scotch Tubs 




1 Splitter. 






1 Set Dry Cans 








































01 


Beaming 


1 Dry Splitter 


150.00 

100.00 

1,200.00 

135.00 

15.00 


550 


.220 


33.00 


1,500 


1.00 


.03 










4 Beaming Frames 

3 Slashers. 








Dressing 


















01 




1 Size Tub. 


2,615 


1,046 


156.90 


3,000 


.70 


.03 




.04 






6 Drawing Frames 

Beam Storage 
























Weaving 


330 Plain Looms 


65.00 
130.00 


21,450 

9,000 

250 

750 


8.580 

3.600 

.100 

.300 


1,387.00 

540.00 

15.00 

45.00 


16,000 

4,000 

200 

200 


.70 

.70 

1.05 

1.05 


.03 
.03 
.03 
.03 


.04 
.04 




01 


Sewing. . . . 


75 Drop Box Looms 

1 Sewing Rolling Mach 


.01 
01 


Brushing 


1 Shear & Brushing Mach 

1 Sewing Machine 

1 Tentering Frame 

1 Size Tub. 






Tentering 


35.00 

3,000.00 

25.00 








3,050 


1.220 


183.00 


1,600 


1.05 


.04 




.02 


.01 


Calendering, . . 


1 Calender. 


1,000 
250 
80 


.400 
.100 
.032 


60.00 
15.00 
4.80 


300 
200 
100 


1.05 
1.05 
1.05 


.03 
.03 
.03 




.02 


01 


Folding 


1 Folder. 




01 


Winding 


1 Winding Machine 




01 


Pressing and 
Packing 


Cloth Racks 










1 Power Press for Cloth. 
1 " " " Yarn.. 




1,000 
800 


.400 
.320 


60.00 
48.00 


3,000 
500 


1.05 
1.05 


.03 
.03 






01 






01 


Steam Plant. . 


5 150H. P. Boilers, &c.... 

1 Feed W ater Heater 

2 Boiler Feed Pumps. 

1 Injector.. 


1,200.00 
300.00 
400.00 
100.00 
12,550.00 
650.00 
450.00 
200.00 






9,600 


3.840 


576.00 


4,000 


1.20 


.03 




.03 


.01 






















Power Plant 


1 Engine.. 


13,200 


5.280 


792.00 


3,000 


1.20 


.03 




.03 


01 


and Shafting 
Light Plant. . . 






2 50 K. W. Dynamos. 

1 Switchboard 


1,100 


.440 


66.00 


200 


1,20 


.03 






01 










Repair Plant. 


Lathes, &c 


1,000 
783 


.400 
.313 


60.00 
46.95 


1,000 

100 

10,000 

5,000 


1.20 

1.20 

.40 

.40 


.03 
.03 
.03 

.03 






01 


Humidifying.. 


1 Pump, &c.. 






Cott'n Storage 












Goods and 
Yarn Storage 










































$250,000 


100.000 


$15,000.00 


123,000 





























820 



TABLE M. 



31 



Total 
Cost 



Per 

Cent 



REPAIR 
SHOPS 



Material 10T4.88 
Labor. Spec. 1094.56 
General La. 273.64 
General Mat. 107.49 
Power 40. 

Maintenance _ 
& Protection 
of Machinery 60. 
" Buildings 37.50 



Labor 



Mate- 
rials 



s 




O ») 


"> 


O O 


u 












' a 


D. 


^ 3 


S 


t«t/3 


cn 




Roll 




Covering 


Includinf; 


Card 


Oil 


Clothiug 


Belting 


Bobbins 


Sticks 


Spools 




Harness 


Travelers 


& Reeds 


Crayons 


Cans 


Shuttles 


Lamps 


Strapping 


Carbons 


Packing 


Starch 




Bands 




Wires 



LIGHT 



HUMID= 
IFYINQ 



STEAM AND 
POWER 



H. P. Per Ct. Distrib 



< 
H 
O 
H 



13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


$4 960 


4.959 
.992 
6.313 
1.155 
1.925 
5.774 


$148.77 
39.76 

189.36 
34.65 
57.75 

173.22 


$31.03 
3.40 
33.00 
15.19 
35.30 
43.10 


$35.60 
4.68 
18.26 
16.70 
31.10 
33.20 


$40.10 
3.80 
60.42 
35.60 
60.40 

130.00 


$ 

383.16 
4.30 
36.50 
15.31 
191.68 
375.90 
315.78 

24.12 

65.30 

1,809.10 


$33.73 
5.05 
63.10 
13.28 
30.46 
61.38 


$ 


54 
3 

67 
7 

13 

34 


7.714 
.429 
9.571 
1.000 
1.857 
4.857 


$694.36 
38.61 
861.39 
90.00. 
167.13 
437.13 


$1,370.48 


993 




129.30 


6,314 
1,155 
1,925 
5,775 


11.40 
3.35 
3.75 

11.35 


3,751.89 
453.62 
935.29 

2,356.49 


34,180 
2,038 
1,560 
2,730 
1,560 
1,605 


24.173 
3.038 
1.560 

3.739 
1.560 
1.605 


725.19 
60.84 
46.80 
81.87 
46.80 
48.15 


337.60 

13.10 

2.00 

8.40 

16.30 

50.30 


181.58 
7.60 
1.50 
38.75 
42.00 
35.50 


334.00 
33.00 
15.00 
3.50 
35.30 
47.10 


353.69 
30.28 
16.37 
38.64 
16.37 
10.37 


50.08 
3.90 
3.00 
5.35 
3.00 


314 
5 
3 
3 

30 
5 


44.857 
.714 
.429 
.429 
4.286 
.714 


4,037.13 
64.36 
38.61 
38.61 

385.74 
64.36 

825.00 
64.26 

275.00 
12.87 
77.13 

400.00 
1,054.26 

244.26 
12,87 
38.61 
64.26 

404.45 

51.39 

3.24 

3.34 


10,813.85 

741.76 

303.28 

413.14 

1,018.51 

3,054.48 








2,140 


2.140 


64.30 


40.20 


20.00 


38.70 


810.00 


13.37 




5 


.714 


1,504.73 








1,560 


1.560 
3.379 


46.80 
68.37 


1.10 
12.00 


2.60 
15.30 


4.30 
107.10 


736.23 


12.37 
34.55 




1 
6 


.143 

.857 


113.84 


3,280 




1,597.58 








13,480 

3,130 

218 


12.476 
3.119 

.218 
.316 

1.793 


374.28 
93.57 
6.54 
6.48 
53.76 


343.13 

110.30 


300.10 
133.05 


205.60 

71.30 

16.80 

3.30 

34.30 


133.13 
33.03 

450.00 


149.40 

39.23 

1.64 

1.64 

13.09 


34.06 
6.00 


82 
19 
1 
3 
5 


11.714 
2.714 
.143 
.429 
.714 


3,870.95 

1,269.64 

53.85 


316 


3.50 
35.60 


18.40 
33.00 




115.83 


1,793 




1,340.36 








333 


.333 

.218 
.109 


9.99 
6.54 
3.37 


13.60 


3.20 


3.30 

.60 

1.00 


5.00 

380.00 

Ch. 

180.00 

Pr. 

113.00 
Mad. 

806.00 

35.10 

Yarn 

310.00 


3.45 
1.64 

.83 




4 


.571 
.036 
.036 


141.83 


318 




33.03 


109 








293.13 




























































3,370 


3.369 

.545 
5.079 
3.809 

.348 
1.350 

.133 
4.399 
3.150 


98.07 

16.35 

1.53.37 

114.27 

7.44 

37.50 

3.69 

138.97 

64.50 


3.50 


1.35 


3.30 

1.30 

60.90 

350.63 

33.18 


34.55 
4.09 






.036 
.036 


3.34 
3.24 


1,316.91 


545 




283.88 


5,080 


150.00 
160.00 
18.00 


387.00 
75.00 
3.50 






3,810 
















348 


94.00 






30 
3 

3 


4,286 
.429 
.385 


385.74 
40.00 
35.00 




1,350 








133 


11.50 
6.34 
3.12 


8.60 
4.30 
3.10 


8.30 










4,300 








139.41 


3,150 












1 


69.73 




















$100,026 


100.004 


$3000.13 


$1368.20 


$1319.87 


$1576.33 


$6895.33 


$818.36 


$133.94 


700 


100,000 


$10,905.19 


$37,541.77 



32 COST FINDING 



detail (25%), the same is added to the cost of repair labor ex- 
pended on each operation in the mill. In this supervision is 
included also the labor on the repair department itself. These 
amounts are then entered in their proper place in the table (Col- 
umn 16) amounting to $1,368.20. 

There is also an unaccounted-for balance of charges ($107.49) 
for material, but before this is distributed there may be added a 
charge of $40,00 for power. This is estimated and will be de- 
ducted from Power account before distributing, later. 

By the portion of the table already constructed, we find the 
cost of Maintenance of the Repair Plant to be $60.00 for Ma- 
chinery, and $37,50 for Buildings, etc. These three items, with 
the unaccounted-for balance of Repair account, are then added to 
the detailed materials cost, on a percentage basis, in the same 
manner as the general labor, and the amounts set down in Column 
17. These amount to $1319.87, and prove the work correct. 

From the Storeroom there have been delivered miscellaneous 
supplies, oil, brooms, crayons, loom strapping, pickers, picker 
sticks, shuttles, travelers, packing, etc. An account of these has 
been kept, and the value delivered to each department entered in 
Column 18, 

In addition to these lighter supplies from the Storeroom, a 
large amount of money has been spent in paying bills for supplies 
of a heavier nature, such as card clothing, bobbins, spools, har- 
nesses, roll covering, starch, and the like. In the column in which 
these are also included some items especially applied to particular 
classes of costs, may be disposed of, such as packing cases, bands, 
burlaps, cloth boards, cones, etc, with a notation of the amount. 
The amount of all the items chargeable to each department or oper- 
ation, may perhaps be most easily ascertained by an inspection at 
th© end of the period of the bills charged to this account. 

In Column 20 are the expenses of Lighting ($818.36) as sum- 
marized in the box at the head of the column. The items include 
Maintenance of Machinery $66.00, and Buildings $7.44, as taken 
from Columns 6 and 15 of this table. Repairs and Supplies from 
Columns 16, 17, 18 and 19 amounting to $146.68, and the cost of 
Power as later ascertained $385.74 and Labor $212.50 from the 
division of general Labor, already given. This cost is divideci 



228 



COST FINDING 33 



among the departments in proportion to the light or current used, 
omitting the Power and Kepair departments, as these cannot be 
closed and divided up, until after all items have been determined. 
On the other hand the cost of Lighting cannot be settled until the 
expense of Repairs and Power has been ascertained. As the costs 
of these latter are more important than the former, the lighting of 
Repairs and Power Departments is passed over. 

The cost of Plumidifying is determined and distributed in a 
similar way. It will be noticed that this expense applies to but 
a portion of the mill. 

The costs of Power and Steam are next worked up. As a con- 
siderable amount 'of the steam generated at this plant is used for 
dyeing, drying, warp dressing, and finishing, a separation is made 
between the Boiler and Engine Installations, and with the cost of 
running the latter is included the care and maintenance of shafting. 

The cost of Steam is made up of Fuel |7,000,00, Labor 
1646.93 (both taken, from the records). The Repairs and Sup- 
plies as taken from this table amount to $498.00, and the Main- 
tenance of Machinery |576.00, and Buildings $152.37. Of the 
total $8,873.30 thus obtained, estimated amounts are apportioned 
in Column 24, to Dyeing, Dressing and Finishing, to cover the cost 
of these processes. 

The remainder of the cost of Steam is added to the cost of Labor 
$640.00, Repairs, etc., $485.62 and Maintenance of Machinery 
$792.00, also Buildings $114.27, applicable to the Power Plant. 

In Column 22 is set down the estimated average power con- 
sumed in each operation. The total Is 700 horse power. The per- 
centage of each operation is extended in Column 23. The total 
cost of Power, including the balance of Fuel is then divided accord- 
ing to the percentage of power used and carried out into Column 24. 
This column, including the amounts already allotted for Steam, will 
now foot up to the sum of cost of Steam and Power, $10,905.19. 

Excluding Steam, Power, Lights, Repairs, and Humidifying, 
which have been redistributed, the General Expense of Maintenance, 
Supplies, Power, etc., are then added across the page, horizontally 
and enumerated in Column 25. 

We have now the means of uniting the Labor Cost with that of 
Maintenance, Supplies and Power, hereafter abbreviated to M.S, 



8S3 



34 



COST FINDING 



and P., for the same departments, and dividing the combined amounts 
among the various kinds of product. This is accomplished in a 
series of forms such as follow: 

Semi^Annual Cost Sheet, Card Room. 



Total lbs. carded 
stock lu Yarns 
and Cloth made. 












No. of Hank or 
Roving 


Total. 


1. 


1.50 


5.20 


6.00 






Total lbs. carded 
stock in Yarns 
andClotb made. 

Add Inventory- 
Dec. 29 




70,000 
6,100 


30,000 
900 


600,000 
58,800 


100,000 
3,300 






Deduct Inventory- 
June 30. . . 




76,100 


30,900 


658,800 
54,700 


103,300 








814,400 


76,100 


30,900 


604,100 


103,300 







Total. 


Per 

lb. 


Total. 


Per 
lb. 


Total. 


Per 

lb. 


Total. 

$1,223.16 
174.24 


Per 

lb. 


Labor Costs, cor- 
rected 


$8,263.36 

1,370.48 

129.30 

3,751.89 

453.63 

935.29 

3,526.49 


$348.16 
128.14 

91.90 
350.39 

42.39 




$155.68 
52,21 
37.40 
142.36 
17.21 


$6,536,36 
1,015.89 






Picking, Mainte- 
nance, Sup. and 
Pow 




Waste Picking, 
Maintenance, 
Sup. and Pow. . 

Carding, Mainte- 
nance, Sup. and 
Pow 






3,783.24 
336.48 
790.37 

2,157.60 




475.90 

57.00 

134.93 

368.89 




Slubbers, Mainte- 
nance, Sup. and 
Pow 

Interm ediate. 
Maintenance, 
Sup. and Pow.. 

Fly Frames, main- 
tenance. Sup. 




























$17,420.43 


960.98 


1.263c 


$404.86 


1.310c 


$13,619.94 


3.354c 


$2,434.65 


2.357e 



As a basis of division of cost, at the top of the form are given 
the pounds of roving contained in the finished product of the mills, 
and this is then corrected to the amount passed through the card 
room, by adding the inventory at the end of the period and deduct- 
ing that at the beginning. The corrected labor costs are then in- 
serted. 

The total cost of M.S. and P. of Picking is then entered from 
Table M, and divided according to the pounds of each hank roving 
made. The M.S. and P. of Waste Picking is entered and divided 
among the two rovings containing waste. The M.S. and P. of the 
various processes of roving frames are then taken separately, and 
divided according to the spindles occupied on each roving. By this 



324 



COST FINDING 



35 



means the cost of 1. hank roving in the department of carding is 

found to be 1.263 cents per pound. 

1 . 50 hank roving 1.310 

5.20 " " ....2.254 
6. " " 2.357 

By a similar method, the tabular forms for the Spinning Room, 

Spooling Room, Reeling Room, Warping Room, Twisting Room, 

Raw Stock Dyeing, Chain Dyeing, Beaming Room, Dressing Room,.. 

Weaving Room, Finishing Room and Storage are entered up and 

figured out. 

Semi^Annual Cost Sheet, Spinning Room. 



No. of Yarn. 




No. 8. 


No. 12. 


No. 25 


Average Spindles run 


21,000 


500 


310 


6,133 


.Lbs. Spinning in Cloth 
and Yarn 


800,000 
24,300 


70,000 
4,900 


30,000 
100 


240,300 


Add Inventory Dec. 29 


18,500 


Deduct " June 30.... 


824,300 
8,900 


74,900 


30,100 


2.58,500 


Labor Costs, corrected .. .. 
Maintenance, Sup. and 
Pow 


815,400 

$ 6,999.90 

10,812.85 


74,900 
$214.70 .300c 
257.43 .330 


30,100 

$195.65 .650c 

159.61 .530 


258,500 

$3,197.35 .850c 

3,157.63 1.223 








$17,813.75 


$472.13 .630c 


$355.26 1.180c 


$5,354.88 2.073c 



No. of Yarn. 


No. 28. 


No. 32. 


No. 36. 


Average Spindles run 


8,126 


3,400 


2,531 






Lbs. Spinning in Cloth and Yarn 

Add Inventory Dec. 29 


289,600 


100,000 
800 


70,400 






Deduct " June 30 


289,600 
8,100 


100,800 


70,400 
800 






Labor Costs, corrected 


281,500 

$2,533.50 .900c 
4,184.45 1.487 


105,000 

$1,058.40 1.050c 
1,750.53 1.737 


69,600 
$ 800.40 1.150c 


Maintenance, Sup. and Pow 


1,303.21 1.873 








$6,717.95 3.387c 


$3,808.93 3.787c 


$3,103.61 3.022c 



Senii=Annual Cost Sheet, Spooling Room. 



No. of Yarn 




8 


25 


38 






Average No. Spindles 
run 




50 


600 


350 






Pounds spooled yarn 

in cloth and yarn . . . 

Add Inventory Dec. 29 


479,600 
44,.500 


70,000 
4,700 


240,000 
25,500 


169,600 
14,300 


Less Inventory June 
30 


524,100 
28,500 


74,700 


365,500 
5,000 


183,900 
23,500 




495,600 
$ 1,775.63 
741.76 


74,700 

$ 112.05 .15 c 

37.09 .049 


260,500 
$ 989.90 .380c 
445.05 .171 




Labor cost, corrected 
Maintenance, sup- 
plies and power. 


$ 673.68 .430c 
259,63 .163 




$ 3,517.39 


$ 149.14 .199c 


$1,434.95 .551c 


$ 933.30 .582c 



36 



COST FINDING 



Semi-Annual Cost Sheet, Reeling Room. 




No. of Yarn 






28 


53 


Average reels run 






13 


3 


Pounds reeled yarn, 
in yarn sold 






120,900 
900 


80,000 


Add inventory Dec. 39 






800 








120,000 
1,000 


80,800 


Deduct Inventory 
June 30 






500 








119,900 

$575.53 .480c 
243.63 .303 


80,300 


Labor Costs, cor- 
rected 

Maintenance, S u p - 
plies and Power 




$ 876.64 
303.28 


$301.13 >375c 
60.66 .075 






$1,179.93 


$818.14 .683c 


$361.78 .450c 









Semi=Annual Cost Sheet, Warping Room. 



No. of Yarn 




8 


25 


28 








No. of Machines run 




5 


5 


1.5 


Ponnds Warped Yarn in 
CI oth and Yarn 




70,000 
3,700 


.240,000 
22.500 


89,600 


Add Inventory Dec. 29 




10,500 








Deduct Inventory June 30 




73,700 


262,500 


100,100 
20,000 












Labor Costs, corrected 

Maintainance, Supplies and 
Power 


$1,097.24 
413.14 


73,700 

$93.13 .135c 

39.51 .040 


262,500 

$708.75 .270c 
295.10 .112 


80,100 

$296,37 .370e 

88.53 .110 




$1,510.38 


$131.63 .165c 


$1,003.85 .382c 


$384.90 .480c 



Semi=Annual Cost Sheet, Twisting Room. 



No. of Yarn 






2138 










No. of Spindles ran 






















80,000 








800 










Deduct Inventory June 30 






80,800 
500 








Labor Cost, corrected 






80,300 
$ 531.95 .6.50c 


Maintenance, Supplies and Power . . . 






1,018.51 1.368 
















$1,540.46 1.918c 



Semi=Annua! Cost Sheet, Raw Stock Dyeing. 



Pounds cotton dyed 
in raw stock in clotb 






• 


398,500 


Add Inventory Dec. 29 








33,500 










332,000 


Labor cost, corrected 








$ 644.00 .200c 


Maintenance, sup- 
plies and power 








3,054.48 .948 










$3,698.48 1.148Q 



3S6 



COST FINDING 



37 



Semi=AnnuaI Cost Sheet, Chain Dyeing. 



67,000 
10,700 

77,700 



Pounds of dyed stock in cloth made 

Add Inventory Dec. 29 

Labor Cost $ 293.10 

Maintenance, Supplies, Power .' 1,504.73 

$1,797.83 

$1,797.83 -=- 77.700 = 2.314e per lb. cost. 



Semi^-Annual Cost Sheet, Beaming. 



Pounds of Beamed Yarn in Cloth Made 

Add Inventory Dec. 29 

Labor Cost ■ ' $669.60 

Maintenance, Supplies, Power 112.84 

$782.44 

$669.60 -^ 83,700 = .800 per lb. Cost Labor. 
112.84 -f- 83,700 = .135 " " M., S. and P. 

.44 -i- 83,700 = .935c Total Cost per lb. 



75,000 
8,700 

83,700 



Semi^Annual Cost Sheet, Dressroom. 



No. Slashes run. 




















Kind of Warp. 


Total. 


Cheviot. 


Madras. 


Print. 






Pounds dressed yarn in cloth 
made 




70.000 
3,500 


150,000 
17,000 


89,600 


Add Inventory Dec. 29 


9,000 


Deduct Inventory June 30 




72,500 


167.000 


98,600 
18,000 


Labor cost 


$1,685.83 
1,597.58 


73,500 

$253.75 .350c 
273.25 .377 


167,000 

$1,085.50 .650c 
948,11 .568 


80,600 
$346.58 .430c 


Maintenance, Supplies, Power 


376.22 .460 




$3,283.41 


$527.00 .727c 


$3,033.61 1.218c 


$722.80 .890c 



Semi^ Annual Cost Sheet, Weave Room. 



Kind of Goods 


Total 


Cheviot 


Print 


Madras 


Check Madras 


No. of Looms run 




27 


153 


150 


75 


Pounds of Cloth 
woven . . . 




100,000 

$1,380.00 1.380c 

316.71 .318 


160,000 

$4,880.00 3,050c 

1,704.69 1.123 


170,000 

$6,120.00 3.600c 

1,7.59.55 1.030 


80,000 


Labor Cost, cor- 
rected . 


$15,860.00 
3,870.95 
1,269. 64 


$3,480.00 4.350c 


M. S. & P. Plain 




M. S. & P. Check 
looms 


1,269.64 1.587 




$31,000.59 


$1,696.71 1.698c 


$6,674.69 4.173c 


$7,879.55 4.635C|$4,749.64 5.937c 



367 



88 



COST FINDING 



Semi" Annual Cost Sheet, Finishing Room. 



Kind of Goods.. .. 


Total . 


Yarn. 


Cheviot. 


Print. 


Madras, 


No. of Pounds.... 


810,000 


300,000 


100,000 


160,000 


350,000 


No. of Yards 






215,000 


1,120,000 


1,500,000 • 


Labor Cost. 


$2,090.00 


$600.00 


$150.00 


$240. 00 


$1,100.00 


Sewing, Main., 












Sup. and Power 


52.85 




4.00 


22.00 


26.85 


Brushing, Main., 












Sup. and Power 


115.83 




8.40 


46.20 


61.23 


Tentering, Main., 












Sup. and Power 


1,240.36 








1.240.36 


Calendering, M'n., 












Sup. and Power 


141.83 






60.48 


81.35 


Folding, Main., 












Sup. and Power 


33.03 






13,80 


18.22 


Winding, Main., 












Sup. and Power 


293.13 








393.13 


Cloth Pressing, 












Main., Sup. and 












Power. 


1,316.91 




225.11 


173,00 


918.80 


Yarn Pressing, 




Main., Sup. and 












Power. 


282.88 


283.88 














$5,565.81 


$882.88 .294c 


$387.51 .388c 


$555.48 .347c 


$3,739,94 1.4960 



Semi^Annual Cost Sheet, Storage. 



Kind of Goods Stored 


Cotton. 


Cheviot. 


Madras. 


Skein Y'rn 


Total. 






Percentage of Space Used 


100% 


20% 


60% 


30% 




Pounds Stored 


$139.41 


$13.95 


$41.83 


$13.95 




Cotton Warehouse 






$69.73 






Cost per pound Finished Goods. 


.018c 


.014c 


.017c 


.005c 





It is unnecessary to follow in detail all the calculations of these 
forms. Concerning the distribution of M.S. and P. it should be un- 
derstood that as a rule it is to be divided according to the pro- 
portion of machinery run, rather than the pounds produced. For 
example, in the Spinning Room, one thousand spindles will require 
about the same floor space, oil, and power whether run on No. 8 
yarn or on No. 36 yarn, but the production in pounds will be far 
different. It is, therefore, contrary to good reasoning, to divide this 
expense on the basis of so much a pound, but rather should it be on 
so much a spindle, and the pound cost will take care of itself. The 
force of this is seen again, in the Weave Room, where the madras 
is divided into two portions: that woven on plain looms, and that 
woven on drop box looms — with a decided increase in cost of the 



828 



COST FINDING 



39 



latter — and again in the contrast of the cost of the cheviot and print 
cloth. 

The last expression of the Cost is made on the Assembling 
Sheets, of which we may conveniently make two, one for yarn and 
one for cloth. As tlie name implies the departmental costs are here 
assembled under proper headings to obtain the full gross costs of 
manufacturing. 



Assembling Sheet Yarn. 



Number 


35 Warp 


28 Skein 


fs Skein 






Carding 


2.254c 

2.073 

.551 

.382 


2.254c 
2.387 
.582 


2.254e 


(Spinning 


2.387 


Spooling 




Warping 




Twisting 




1.918 


Reeling 




.682 
.294 
.005 
.018 


.450 


Finishing 


.294 


.294 


Storage, Yarn s 


.005 


Storage, Cotton 


.018 


.018 






General Expense and Interest 


5.572 

.598 

9.342 


6.222 
.672 

9.342 


7.326 
.832 


Cotton 


9.342 






Freight 


15.512 

.252 
1.600 


16.236 

.330 
1.680 


17.500 
.336 


Commission 


1.760 






Total Cost Yarns 


17.364 


18.246 


19.901 







Taking the case first of No. 25 warp yarn; we find this to be 
made from 5.20 hank roving, and the department cost of carding 
this, from the Semi-Annual Cost Sheet, is found to be 2.254, which 
is set down in the proper space. The other sale yarns are also made 
from the same size roving, and are similarly entered. 

From the Spinning Room Cost Sheet we find the cost of spinning 
No. 25 yarn to be 2.073 cents, now to be entered below the carding. 

After the same manner we obtain and enter the costs of Spool- 
ing, Warping and Finishing. We omit Twisting and Reeling as 
having no part in the cost of single warp. We omit also Storage of 
Yarn as this yarn was shipped promptly upon being packed. The 
storage of cotton, however, is a part of the cost, and is included. 



329 



40 COST FINDING 



Following the same steps with all the yarns, we find the sum of 
the costs, thus far attained, to be 

No. 25 Yarn 5 . 572 cts. 

No. 28 Skein Yarn 6 . 222 " 

No. ^^a " " 7.326 " 

These figures include all the costs of manufacturing proper 
except the stock, and certain general expenses which are not assign- 
able to any department, nor can they be divided among the products 
by any system by which it is possible to say: "We know that so 
much money was expended for Salaries, Postage, or Cleaning up 
the Yard, and the expense is directly caused by such a kind of goods 
or yarn, and chargeable to it." 

These unassignable expenses as shown by the mills accounts, are 

Salaries and Office Expense $4,000.00 

Miscellaneous Expense 500 . 00 

Yards 600 . 00 

Interest 3,600.00 

$8,700.00 

This sum is found to be 1^% of the amount of other expenses, 
excluding cotton and yarn purchased, and is divided among the 
products on this percentage plan. It may fairly be assumed that 
those departments having a higher labor cost and using more sup- 
plies, will call for more supervision, more correspondence and office 
expense, more general labor and money borrowed. Charges of in- 
terest on money used in the purchase and carrying of cotton, may 
previously be calculated and added to Cotton account, or the cost 
of interest on funds invested in cotton and finished goods may be 
added to the Semi-Annual Storage Report, if thought more con- 
venient. 

This percentage of general expense should be added before 
the inclusion of the cost of stock, since the latter bears no relation 
to it and, varying from season to season, would vary the proportion 
of expense to each product without good reason. 

We have already found the cost of stock used in all yarns sold 
to be 9.342 cents, and having added this to the previously ascertained 
cost, the full manufacturing cost, with the exception of the important 
one of profits, is completed. 

As the purpose of all manufacturing is gain, and the utility of 
cost investigation lies in showing where, and how much of that gain 



830 



COST FINDING 41 



has resulted or will result, profits may be considered legitimately an 
element of cost. It is often easier to determine what it ought to be, 
than to obtain it under adverse market conditions, and it is occa- 
sionally obtainable to a greater degree than is necessary for an average 
return on capital invested. The return on capital investment, how- 
ever, is the only basis, when considered as a cost. If there is no 
wide variation in product, such as would be the case if the yarns 
already considered were the only product, the necessary profit might 
be reckoned from the production per spindle of each kind of yarn, 
but in such a combination of departments and processes as arise in a 
spinning and weaving mill, a better rule is to calculate the gross 
profit desired, and add the necessary percentage to the costs, again 
excluding the stock used. 

The cost of the stock used should be omitted because it is such 
a variable element. Depending upon conditions of the crop and 
markets, it may vary fifty per cent in price, while the margin neces- 
sary for fair returns would be unchanged. Of two kinds of goods 
having a very different cost of stock, the one costing more might, on 
account of greater production per unit of loom or spindle, require 
less margin of profit than the other. 

The Manufacturing Costs having now all been obtained, the 
additional expense of marketing and distributing goods must be had. 
These include Freight, paid on goods shipped. Commissions, for 
selling, and sometimes Advertising, Traveling Expense, and other 
items. 

In these tables the net Commissions are added as a percentage, 
varying according to the contract with the seUing house, or with 
trade custom. The estimated amount which will have to be paid 
for freight is added. It must be borne in mind that these items are 
based on the actual cost per yard or pound of the product under 
estimate. 

Unlike other factors this cost per pound cannot be taken from 
the net expense incurred during the periods. It is quite usual for 
goods to be stored in large quantities, so that the expense of distrib 
uting is a very variable one, so far as amount of charges in any length 
of period is concerned. 

Goods which it took most of the time for six or nine months to 
manufacture, may be stored and then cleared out in one or two 



331 



42 



COST FINDING 



months, and all the charges for selling and shipping, concentrated 
in a short time. 

ASSEMBLING SHEET, CLOTH. 



Cheviot 



Warp No. 8 No.lh.r. 
Fill No. 12, 1.50 " 
Yards, per lb., 2.15 



Print Cloth 



WarpNo.28.No.5.20h.r 
Fill No. 36, 5.20 " 
Yards, per lb. 7.00 



Madras 



WarpNo.25,No.5.20h.r 
Fill No. 82, 6.00 " 
Yards, per lb. 6.00 





Cost 

per 

pound 


Per 

cent 
used 


Cost 

per 

pound 

Cloth 


Cost 

per 

pound 


Per 

cent 
used 


Cost 

per 

pound 

Cloth 


Cost 

per 

pound 


Per 

cent 
used 


Cost 

per 

pound 

Cloth 


Labor Cost, corrected 




















Carding warp 

Carding filling 

Scinning warp 

Spinning filling 

Spooling warp 

Warping 


1.263 

1 310 

.630 

1.180 

.199 

.165 


70 
30 
70 
30 
70 
70 


.884 
.393 
.441 
.354 
.159 
.106 


2.254 
3.254 
2.387 
3 022 

.582 
.481 


56 
44 
56 
44 
56 
56 


1.262 

992 

1 337 

1.330 

.326 

.269 


2.254 
2.359 

3.073 

3.787 

.551 

.382 

.935 

1 148 

2.314 

1.218 


56.8 

40.7 

56.8 

40 

56.8 

56.8 

SO 

70 

26.8 

60 


i.2T9 

.943 

1 177 

1.115 

.313 

.217 


Beaming 


.281 


Raw Stock Dyeing. .. 
Chain Dyeing . 


1.148 


100 


1.148 








.794 








.620 


Dressing 


.727 


70 


.509 
1.698 
.388 
.018 
.014 


.897 


56 


.502 

4 172 

.347 

.018 


.731 


Weaving 


4.635 


Finishing 










4.496 


Storage, Cotton 














.018 


Storage Goods 














.017 


Total Mill Expense . . 






6.112 




10.555 






13.635 


General Expense and 
Interest 11^3% 






.693 






1.203 
11.758 

9.342 






1.565 








6.805 
6.693 








15.260 


Cotton . 














8.968 


Yarn 














.800 








13.498 
.560 
.850 

14.908 






21.100 
.240 
.350 






24.968 


Freight 














.720 


Commissions 














1.500 












31.690 






37.188 
















The above cost of Madras is for 170.000 lbs. woven on plain looms. The 80,000 lbs- 
woven on drop box looms cost (per Weave Room Cost Sheet) 5.937 cents per pound for 
weaving instead of 4. 635 cents as above. The total cost of manufacturing the check goods 
was therefore 38.490 cents per pound instead of 24.968 cents. 

In the assembling sheet for woven goods, we have a similar work 
to that on yarns, with additional elements. The Cheviot is made 
of 70% warp and 30% filling, made from different rovings, and 
therefore having different card room costs. The warp carding L263 
cents per lb., and each pound of cloth contained 70% warp. The 
cost per pound of cloth for carding warp, was therefore, 70% of 
1.263 cts., or .884 ct. per lb. The cost per pound of cloth for card- 
ing fining is 30% of 1.310 cts., the cost of the filling. For convenience 
these assembling sheets for cloth are provided with separate columns 
for each of these three items, and each process is entered up for the 
extent to which it enters into the make-up of the fabric. There is 
no division of the cost of weaving and subsequent operations. 



332 



COST FINDING 43 



In the cost of warp for Madras it will be noted that only 56.8% 
of the cloth is carded and spun for warp. The filling is 40% of the 
cloth. The balance, 3.2% , is the yarn purchased which did not pass 
through the carding and spinning in the Enterprise Mills, and there- 
fore is ehminated from the labor costs of those departments. 

Only one half of the warp is beamed, the other half being warped 
from yarn spun from bleached cotton. One half the warp makes 
30% of the cloth. 

The yarn purchased was dyed previously, and amounted to 
3.2% of the cloth. As already stated 60% of the Madras was warp. 
One half of this, or 30% of the cloth, less 3.2% purchased, equal to 
26.8% of the cloth, was dyed by the long chain system. The balance 
or 70% was dyed in raw stock. 

The addition of General Expense, etc., is also on the same plan, 
as with the cost of yarn, and also the cost of Stock, excepting that in 
the Madras the item of the additional cost of the yarn purchased 
solely for these goods. Deducting the value of the inventory of yarn 
the amount used was equal to .800 cent per pound. 

There were also two kinds of INIadras, one woven on plain looms, 
and one on drop box looms, but alike in all other respects, and hav- 
ing the same cost except for weaving. 

Having summed up the ]\Ianufacturing Costs, we may add 
Freight and Commissions. These differ from the Manufacturing 
Cost items in that they should equal the expense that has been, or 
will be incurred in the distribution of the goods, whether it has already 
been paid out or not. 

The total costs per pound for cloth, less margin for profit, are: 

Cheviot 14.908 cts. per lb. 

Print Cloth 21.690 " " " 

Madras, plain looms 27 . 1 88 " " " 

Madras, drop box looms . . . .28 .490 " " " 

As 170,000 lbs. of INIadras were woven on plain looms, and 80,- 

000 lbs. on check looms, but were all sold at the same price, we are 

interested to find the average price of INIadras: 

(27 .188 cts. X 170,000) + (28 .490 X 80,000) - 250,000 = 27 .604 cts. per lb. 

The cost per yard may be obtained from the cost per pound by 

dividing by the yards per pound, as follows: 

Cheviot 14.908 ^ (2.15 + 2% = 2.193) = 6.S0 cts. per yard. 
Print Cloth 21.690 h- 7 = 3.10 cts. per yard. 
Madras 27.604 -=- 6 = 4.60 cts. per yard. 



333 



44 COST FIXDING 



These yards per pound are the figures obtained by dividing the 
pounds from the loom by the finished yards. And 2% is added to 
the cheviot because 2% has been gained in v^eight in process through 
the mill above the original proportion of stock, as previously noted. 

The computations have been long, complicated and laborious, 
and it is well to prove the substantial accuracy of the mathematical 
work, which may be done as follows: 

100,000 lbs. No. 25 Warp at 15.512 cts. per lb . . . . $15,512.00 



19,483.00 
14,000.00 
13,498.00 
33,760.00 
42,445 . 60 
21,016.00 

$159,714.60 
Additional value Labor, and M. S. & P., inventory of 
. stock in process 1 ,439 .19 



120,000 
80,000 
100,000 
160,000 
170,000 
80,000 



28 Skein " 16.236 
■i^ " " 17.500 
Cheviot " 13.498 
Print Cloth 21.100 
Stripe Madr. 24.968 
Check Madr. 26 . 270 



Total Cost of Products, as computed 1161,153.79 



Total Value, Mfg. Labor, from semi-annual cost sheets $40,777.25 
" " Repairs, Labor, Material, Taxes, etc., see 

page 28 35,241 . 65 

Depreciation alloAved , 11,000.00 

Cotton, less increased inventory, see page 24 65,396.39 

Waste, " " " " "24 6,693.05 

Yarn, " " " 2,000 .00 



Total Expenses Manufacturing $161,108 .34 

The manager of the Enterprise Mills, having devised in outline 
the method above described, had it carried into effect, at the end of 
the half year. He discovered, however, that the bookkeeper, though 
efficient, was not sufficiently informed upon the mill work and proc- 
esses to carry out the scheme, without his own personal, strict super- 
vision, and that on the other hand the clerical work was far too 
great for him to do alone. 

One afternoon he called the superintendent and showed him 
the results, and asked him what he thought of them. 

"Well!" was the reply, 'T reckon they are all right, but it seems 
to be a mighty lot of work." 

"Yes," replied the manager, "it is. But I think in our condi- 
tion it is worth it, I would not bother with such fine points if we 
were making only a few yarns, as we began. But I want now, not 
an estimate of what goods have cost, but a computation. And while 
this method is not perfect, and we may yet improve it, no one can 
say that we have not considered practically all the items of cost in 



334 



COST FINDING 45 



a rational way. Moreover, it has proved an "eye-opener" to me 
in many ways. We strive to keep down the labor costs, and rightly, 
and tliink the card room pay-roll a heavy one, but dp you realize 
that the Depreciation, Maintenance, Supplies and Power cost 
equally as much. Spinning Room labor cost is considerable, but 
its Maintenance, Supplies and Power are half as much again. In 
the light of these facts, how important it is to obtain and maintain 
the highest efficiency and production of our machinery and help. 

"We direct our energies to keep down the cost of supplies for 
the weave room, but their importance dwarfs in comparison with a 
ten per cent increase in the spinning room production, and, if this 
new method teaches us something r>f true values, it will not be in 
vain." 



335 



INDEX 



The page numbers of this volume will be found at the bottom of the 
pages; the numbers at the top refer only to the section. 



Corkscrew and double-twill weaves 
Cost finding 



Page 

113 

291-335 



Actuating the harnesses 
Alternate drafts 
Application of color to fabrics 
Areas occupied by main figures 
Ari'angenient of figure 


55 

70 

39 

216 

222 


Cost sheets 

Cotton filling and woolen back 

Cotton sateen stripe 

Cut sections 

D 

Damask 


324 


— oou 

-328 

126 

101 

25 


B 

Backed cloths 


125 




67 


Basket weaves 


112 


Damask patterns, exercises on 




72 


Binding 


145 


Design, from a written formula 




47 


Broken colors 


287 


Design paper, use of 




11 






Diagonals 


15, 


231 


C 




Diamond patterns 




254 


Card cutting 
Casting out 


205 
208 


Diaper work 
Distribution of pattern 




67 

214 


Chinchilla 


191 


Double cloth 




141 


Classification of colors 


282 


Double-cloth design, laying out 




154 


Cloths 




Double draft 




69 


backed with filling 


121 


Double plain design 




175 


l^acked with warp 


127 


Doup 




238 


Color, theory of 


281 


Drafting, exercises in 




76 


Color eftects 


39 


Drafting and reduction 




55 


Coloring, textile 


281 


Dress goods design 




48 


Colors 




P 






application of to fabrics 


39 






classification of 


282 


Fancy leno designs 




247 


compound 


282 


Fancy 45-degree twills 




20 


secondary 


283 


Fancy twills 




65 


simple 


282 


Figiu-e, arrangement of 




222 


tertiary 


283 


Figured pique 




200 


combination of 


288 


Figures 






of the spectrum 


286 


formed with both warp and filling 


226 


Combination of colors 


288 


not square 




229 


Compound colors 


282 


Filling pile 




185 


Corduroy 


187 


Filling plush 




186 


Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages. 











337 



II 



INDEX 



Filling-effect, figured rib weaves 


Page 

109 


E 


Page 


Flushes 


62 


Relation of color to textiles 


284 


Full gauze 


242 


Reverse twills 


66 


G 




S 




Gauze 


237 


Sateen stripes 


98 


H 




Sateen tick stripe 


99 


Hairline 
Harness 


176 

48 


Sateen weaves' 
exercises in 


88 
92 


Harnesses, actuating tlie 
Heddles and eyes 
Hue 

I 
Influence of color on weaves 
Interlacing 
Intersections 
Irregular rib weaves 


55 

48 
287 


Satin 
Satinet 
Scaling 
Secondary colors 


88 

88 

287 

283 


39 

25 

25 

106 


Simple colors 
Spectrum, colors of 
Spot weaves 

exercises in 
Standard and doup 


282 
286 
179 
35 
238 


J 




Steep and reclining twills 


24 


Jacquard designing 


202 


Swansdown weave 


272 


L 




T 




Laying out triple clotli design 
Leno 


171 
237 


Tertiary colors 
Textile coloring 


283 
281 


Leno designs 


244 


Textile design 


11-289 


fancy 


247 


Textiles, relation of color to 


284 


open-work 


267 


Theory of color 


281 


Leno stripes 


274 


Tliree-ply cloths 


164 


Luminous colors 


287 


Tones 


286 


M 




Triple cloth design, laying out 


171 


Main figures, areas occupied by 
Manufacturing labor 

N 


216 
315 


Triple cloths 
Triple drafts 
Twill weaves 


164 
70 
15 


Neutral colors 


2SS 


Twilling 
Twills 


62 


O 
Oblique rib weaves 
Open-work leno designs 


110 
267 


fancy 45 degree 
steep and reclining 
V 
Value, color 


20 
24 


Overchecks 

P 


104 


287 


Pattern, distribution of 


214 


W 




Pique 


195 


Warp effect, figured rib weaves 


108 


Plain cloth 


14 


Warp figures with gaiize 


260 


Plain gauze 


237 


Warp pile 


185 


Plain rib weaves 


106 


Warp plush 


189 


Plan making, exercises in 


31 


Warping and dressing 


49 


Plush 


185 


Weaves 




Point draws 


67 


basket 


112 


Potentiality, color 


287 


corkscrew and double-twill 


113 


Note. — For page numbers see foot of pages. 









338 



M 23 19U2 



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